拍賣筆記 vol.115 佳士得紐約：白瓷月亮大罐，283萬美金售出 - AN JOSEON DYNASTY WHITE PORCELAIN MOON JAR

White ceramic jar with a wide, round body and narrow opening, set against a plain gray background. The surface shows subtle cracks.

早在中國唐代，就已經可以製作出從審美、尺寸、技術難度上全面超越月亮罐的作品。東方陶瓷學會曾展出一件由John Berwald收藏的尺寸超過50公分，一體成型的唐代白釉（或為邢窯）的大型萬年罐。這類作品的誕生，比月亮罐早一千年。

雖然各式球形器物有時會被稱作月亮罐，但根據韓國文化財廳的官方定義，真正的月亮罐應為球形、無裝飾、具白釉，且高度至少達40公分。儘管18世紀的月亮罐高度從約29至近50公分不等，但尺寸及純白的美學是鑑別月亮罐的關鍵特徵。

White ceramic bowl upside down on a gray surface. The base shows cracks and signs of wear, creating an antique, rustic feel.

造成月亮罐價格高的原因可能有幾個：1、韓國買家支持；2、柳宗悅等人對瓷器的膚淺理解和對文藝青年的誤導；3、韓國流行文化、當代藝術的“循循善誘”⋯

最後，價格並不是衡量藝術的標準，這種通過當代藝術和流行文化引導的空中樓閣顯然在歷史上站不住腳。雖然月亮罐拍出283萬美金的高價，但從人類歷史的客觀事實和藝術成就去評斷，大唐帝國的萬年罐無論從任何層面上都遠超月亮罐，這也是未來值得關注的趨勢。

As early as China's Tang dynasty, ceramics surpassing moon jars in aesthetics, scale, and technical complexity were already being produced. The Oriental Ceramic Society once exhibited a Tang-dynasty white-glazed (possibly Xing ware) large "Wannian Jar," over 50 centimeters in height, formed from a single piece, from the John Berwald collection. Such works predate moon jars by approximately a thousand years.

Although various spherical vessels are sometimes loosely described as moon jars, according to the official definition by Korea’s Cultural Heritage Administration, an authentic moon jar must be spherical, undecorated, white-glazed, and at least 40 centimeters high. While the heights of 18th-century moon jars range from approximately 29 to nearly 50 centimeters, size and the pure white aesthetic are key criteria for identifying genuine examples.

Several factors may explain the high prices commanded by moon jars today: first, strong support from Korean collectors; second, a superficial understanding of ceramics propagated by figures such as Yanagi Sōetsu, leading to misconceptions among literary youth; and third, the subtle yet influential promotion through Korean popular culture and contemporary art.

Ultimately, price should not be construed as a definitive metric for artistic value. This contemporary art market phenomenon, driven by pop culture influences, constitutes an illusory construct lacking historical substantiation. While the Moon Jar recently commanded $2.83 million at auction, rigorous analysis through the lens of historical objectivity and artistic achievement reveals that the Wannian Jar from the Tang Empire surpasses its lunar counterpart across all critical parameters - a distinction that will likely gain increasing recognition in cultural discourse.

重要白瓷月亮大罐

朝鮮王朝（18世紀）

成交價：美元 2,833,000

估價：美元 1,800,000 – 美元 2,500,000

2025年3月18日

45厘米高；45.5厘米寬

A large, round white ceramic vase with a smooth surface is set against a dark background. The lighting highlights its texture and form.

“圓潤明亮如滿月”這一描述恰如其分地刻畫了韓國月白釉大月亮罐的特點：體積巨大、造型圓潤、釉面光亮。它們誕生於十八世紀朝鮮王朝（1392–1910）時期，由位於首爾附近分院窯的匿名陶工製作，此類器物既作為儲藏容器，也偶爾用作盛放大型花卉陳設的花瓶，適用於宴會和儀式場合。韓語中稱之為 달항아리（讀作 dal hangari），直譯為「月亮罐」，這也是英文名稱 “moon jar” 的由來；在現代，月亮罐已成為韓國身份的象徵與民族自豪感的標誌，因為只有韓國製造出了月亮罐。[i]

各式各樣大小和造型的器物常被統稱為「月亮罐」，但只有那些形狀近似球體且尺寸較大的器物才真正符合月亮罐的定義。儘管朝鮮王朝時期的球形大罐高約29至近50公分不等，但韓國文化遺產廳正式認定，只有那些球形、無任何裝飾、施以白釉且高度至少達40公分的器物才算是真正的月亮罐。

由於缺乏裝飾，月亮罐主要依賴嚴謹的造型與釉色之美來彰顯其美學魅力。其口沿與足圈雖較短且直徑相近，使得器物的上半部與下半部近乎左右對稱；一般來說，足圈呈嚴格的垂直狀，而來自十八世紀前半期的月亮罐，其短唇略向外翻，而後半期的則為平直垂直。

月亮罐由上下兩半構成，製作時先以瓷土在陶輪上製成兩個大小及形狀完全相同的半球形大碗。待其乾燥至適當狀態後，這兩半便依照口沿對齊疊放，再以摻有少許水的瓷土漿黏合在一起；此作法使得兩半在未入窯時便結合在一起，並在燒製過程中促進結合。當器物達到適當乾燥階段後，工匠會切割足圈、開口並塑形唇部。待器物完全骨乾後，便進行素燒，溫度介於700°至1000°C之間。素燒的過程中，瓷土中殘留的有機物會被燃燒掉，同時去除餘留水分，從而穩固器形，並降低燒製時坍塌或變形的可能性；簡而言之，素燒將柔軟、可塑的瓷土轉變為堅硬、耐用且多孔的陶體。隨後，工匠會將釉漿均勻塗佈於器物內外及基部（唯獨足圈底部因防止器物在燒製時與窯架粘連而被擦去釉漿）。待器物完全乾燥後，再放入窯中進行高溫燒製——溫度超過1250°C，通常介於1300°至1400°C之間——在此過程中，瓷體由不透明、多孔的素燒瓷轉變為堅硬、不滲水、半透明的白瓷，而釉漿則轉變為堅硬、透明且光澤如玻璃的釉層。

由於月亮罐的兩半都十分沉重，加上器物最寬處位於隆起的中部，沉重的瓷土常在燒製過程中導致輕微變形：例如，有的罐可能會略向一側傾斜，有的則在兩半接合處中段呈現輕微隆起或凹陷（即產生小凹痕），還有的可能一面下垂並顯現明顯的膨脹，這些均是因重力在燒製過程中將沉重瓷土向下拉所致。這些變形雖非刻意求得，但韓國人卻視其為功能性罐具的自然一部分；雖然他們珍視形態優美、燒製精良且保存完好的月亮罐，但許多現代鑑賞家也極為推崇這些常見的不完美——無論是扭曲、下垂、坍塌或隆起——因為這些自然而非人工修飾的痕跡，揭示了窯火與瓷土之「意志」，也賦予每個罐獨特個性，使得每個月亮罐皆各不相同。

新燒製完成時，多數十八世紀的月亮罐呈現白色至乳白色，透明釉面有時因窯內氣氛而略帶一絲天藍。然而，這些罐常帶有細小的棕色或黑色斑點，這些小瑕疵可能源於瓷土中的雜質、燒製時落於器物上的少量灰燼或煤煙，亦或是窯內氣氛的微妙變化。無論新時器物表面看似多麼均勻，現今許多十八世紀罐具在局部區域仍呈現粉紅、黃色、焦糖色至深棕色不等的胭脂色調。雖然部分月亮罐或許原本用來盛放穀物或其他乾物，但更有可能用於存放液體，從淡色的酒、油、醋，到深棕色的醬油均有可能。若器內釉層產生裂紋——並非貫穿瓷體達到外部，而僅限於釉面內部的一道細裂——罐中所存液體便可能滲入裂縫，在釉下擴散，使裂縫處變色，形成局部的胭脂色。存放於罐內液體的顏色及其存放時間長短，便決定了胭脂色彩的濃淡。除了局部的胭脂色外，多數月亮罐亦顯示出使用磨損的痕跡，有時甚至歷經長期使用而出現劃痕、缺口、裂痕及凹痕。正如人們珍視月亮罐造型上的天然不完美，現代鑑賞家亦推崇這些色彩胭脂與使用痕跡，因為它們傳達了器物的歷史與歲月變遷，同時賦予每個罐獨特個性。

由於功能性的月亮罐在傳統上並未被視為藝術品，更遑論收藏，因此現存月亮罐寥寥無幾。事實上，據信全球僅存大約二十餘件大型月亮罐——即高度達40.0公分或以上的器物。2023年3月21日（拍品編號177），佳士得於紐約拍賣行售出一件來自日本私人收藏、高45.1公分的精美月亮罐；[ii]而今，佳士得再次拍賣一件同樣出自日本私人收藏的傑出大型月亮罐。

在韓國，至少有七件大型月亮罐，其中四件被指定為國寶，一件被指定為寶物：一件收藏於私人收藏中（國寶第309號），[iii]一件收藏於位於首爾的國立故宮博物院（國寶第310號），一件收藏於龍仁的優學文化基金會（國寶第262號），一件收藏於首爾國立中央博物館（館藏號 Jeopsu 702，國寶第1437號），[iv]一件收藏於首爾的愛茉莉博物館（寶物），[v]另一件收藏於首爾國立中央博物館（Sinsu 3658），[vi]以及一件於2019年6月26日在首爾拍賣會上成交（拍品編號179）。

韓國以外最著名的大型月亮罐，是1935年於首爾由著名英國陶藝家伯納德·里奇（Bernard Leach，1887–1979）購得的那一件，里奇被譽為英國工作室陶藝之父。里奇熱愛這件月亮罐，從中獲得靈感，並在書信及其他著作中多次提及；其去世後，該罐轉贈予其友人、著名奧地利—英國陶藝家露西·里（Lucie Rie，1902–1995）；露西·里去世後，倫敦大英博物館便收購了這件月亮罐，如今陳列於館內（編號 1999,0302.1）。[vii]現收藏於大阪東方陶瓷博物館（編號 01404）的一件精美大型月亮罐，曾由作家志賀直哉（Shiga Naoya，1883–1971）贈予奈良著名寺廟東大寺的住持上司海雲（Kamitsukasa Kaiun，1906–1975）；該罐於1995年遭竊賊破損後修復，隨後轉入大阪東方陶瓷博物館收藏。[viii]

在美國博物館藏品中，至少有四件大型月亮罐：分別收藏於波士頓美術博物館（50.1040），[ix]馬薩諸塞州劍橋的哈佛藝術博物館（1991.609），[x]舊金山亞洲藝術博物館（B60P110+），[xi]以及檀香山藝術博物館（7733.1）。[xii]中型月亮罐——即高度介於30公分至40公分之間的器物——則出現在紐約大都會藝術博物館（1979.413.1），[xiii]克利夫蘭藝術博物館（1983.28），[xiv]芝加哥藝術學院（2001.413），[xv]阿拉巴馬州伯明翰藝術博物館（2002.4），[xvi]以及舊金山亞洲藝術博物館（F2011.12.4）。[xvii]

韓國陶工至少在三國時期（傳統上為公元前57年至公元668年）就已開始製作大型球形罐，這可從首爾國立中央博物館（Jeung 343）、[xviii]哈佛藝術博物館（1988.420）[xix]以及大都會藝術博物館（1981.401）中收藏的三至五世紀低溫燒製的土器罐中見到一斑。即便如此，現今已成為標誌性月亮罐的製作，仍需等待朝鮮王朝的來臨與瓷器在當時的崛起。

效法於唐代（618–907）已掌握瓷器製作技藝的中國，韓國陶工於高麗王朝（918–1392）時期便開始製造瓷器，此點可從大阪東方陶瓷博物館收藏的一組高麗瓷瓜形壺與盆（編號 00251）中得到證明；[xxi]然而，當時這些白瓷器因受到備受推崇的青瓷影響而黯然失色。

1392年，朝鮮王朝取代高麗王朝，新政府以中國明朝（1368–1644）為藍本；因此，宮廷將佛教撇除，奉行儒家新理學（宋明理學）為國教，同時捨棄前朝對青瓷的偏愛，轉而青睞適用於宮廷的白瓷，由此推動瓷器的興起，並催生出韓國眾多瓷窯。由於韓國陶工發現了製作瓷器所必需的兩種瓷土——高嶺土與白墩子——且於高麗中期至晚期已掌握瓷器製作技術，故早期朝鮮陶工有能力為宮廷製作既有單色白瓷又有青花瓷之瓷器。

此件月亮罐正是在分院窯製作的，於朝鮮王朝時期，此處出產了最精良的韓國瓷器。因韓國最佳質瓷土之礦藏位於京畿道廣州市，距首爾東南僅二十里（約35公里），故最精良之韓國瓷器窯便在此發展起來。分院里窯即為其中之一，其歷史可追溯至1460年代中期，當時專為宮廷製作白瓷而建立。分院窯一直作為官方宮廷窯運作，直至1880年代私營化。該窯生產了多種不同等級之瓷器，包括宮廷專用瓷器、各中央政府機構用瓷以及私人定製瓷。

儘管朝鮮陶工自十五世紀起便已製作出以釉下鈷藍、銅紅與鐵棕彩繪裝飾的中式瓷器，且此製法持續至朝鮮王朝末期，但韓國的審美普遍偏好素雅的白瓷，而非色彩斑斕的中式瓷器。從此件月亮罐可見，韓國人的品味傾向於內斂、精緻甚至清苦，而非張揚奪目；正如朝鮮王朝的韓國人所信，內斂符合儒家新理學之原則，並體現出純潔、正直、誠實與高尚品格。十九世紀學者李圭景（Yi Gyu’gyeong，1788–1856）曾評曰：「白瓷最大的優點在於其絕對純淨。任何對其進行裝飾的嘗試都只會破壞其美。」事實上，白瓷被認為能完美象徵儒家君子；同樣，朝鮮紳士亦與中國人截然不同，他們常穿白絲長袍，此情形可從首爾國立中央博物館收藏的十八世紀初金弘道（Kim Hong-do，1745–1806後）及李命基所繪的徐直修（Seo Jiksu，1735–1811）肖像（Deoksu 5688，寶物 1487）中窺見一斑。[xxii]

由於功能性月亮罐在傳統上並未被視為藝術品，更遑論收藏，故歷代少有收藏家青睞；事實上，在二十世紀之前，朝鮮瓷器整體上鮮少受到鑑賞家和收藏家的重視，他們更偏好中國瓷器。實際上，正是日本藝術評論家、哲學家及民藝運動（Mingei，民芸）創始人柳宗悅（Yanagi Sōetsu，1889–1961）首次關注朝鮮瓷器，率先認識到韓國月亮罐之美與重要性。柳宗悅與河井寬次郎（Kawai Kanjirō，1890–1966）、濱田莊司（Hamada Shōji，1894–1978）以及前述英國人伯納德·里奇（Bernard Leach，1887–1979）這幾位朋友、陶藝家及民藝倡導者，共同推動了朝鮮瓷器的國際傳播，使外界開始關注韓國月亮罐。

在韓國，著名畫家金煥基（Kim Whanki，1913–1974）率先發現了韓國月亮罐的美，並開始收藏之。[xxiii]金煥基為韓國最著名的現代畫家之一，於上世紀六七十年代憑藉抽象畫獲得國際聲譽；而在四五十年代，其畫作則屬具象表現，作品中流露出對祖國韓國的熱愛，透過描繪月亮、群山、雲彩、鹳鳥、盛放的梅花以及他鐘愛的月亮罐，捕捉到韓國的審美情趣與詩意。其同期畫家都相鳳（To Sangbong，1902–1977）亦步亦趨，創作出具有鮮明韓國風格的景致，其中亦包括月亮罐，有時以花瓶呈現，有時則作為陳列於基座上的裝飾性藝術品。

金煥基及其藝術界同仁不僅推動了月亮罐的欣賞，亦共同創造了「달항아리」這一名稱——直譯為「月亮罐」——即今日韓國對此類器物的稱呼。於二十世紀中葉之前，此類器物僅稱為 큰 항아리（keun hangari，意為「大罐」），或偶爾以漢式名稱大壺、圓壺、或大罐來稱呼。

夾在中國與日本這兩個歷史悠久、藝術文化底蘊深厚的強鄰之間，韓國於二十世紀中期苦苦尋求一個獨特象徵，以便在國際舞台上彰顯自身特色，尤其是在經歷了三十五年的日本殖民統治（1910–1945）以及慘烈的朝鮮戰爭（1950–1953）之後。儘管在千百年的歷史中，韓國曾創造出雄偉的佛像、精緻的繪畫以及連中國人亦讚嘆的絕美青瓷，韓國人仍對缺乏國際認可深感惋惜，因此迫切需要一個純正的韓國符號來象徵國家，使其與中日兩國明顯區分。多虧了柳宗悅的努力以及金煥基與其同行畫家的倡導，韓國最終在朝鮮月亮罐中找到了這一象徵——此件僅於韓國製造之器物，故具有獨特的韓國性。

一旦獲得作為韓國身份主要象徵的認可，月亮罐便激勵陶藝家以瓷器復興其造型，同時也促使畫家在作品中融入月亮罐的形象（雖表現方式與金煥基及其藝術圈迥異）。因此，眾多傑出陶藝家紛紛接受挑戰，重新詮釋月亮罐之造型。其中較為知名者包括朴英淑（Park Young Sook，生於1947年）、朴富元（Park Boo Won，生於1938年）、權大燮（Kwon Daesup，生於1952年）、李東式（Lee Dongsik）以及金世龍（Kim Seyong，生於1946年）等。此外，亦有如崔永旭（Choi Young Wook，生於1964年）此類以超現實主義風格描繪朝鮮月亮罐的藝術家，以及如姜益中（Kang Ikjoong，生於1960年）在其畫作中融入月亮罐意象的畫家。在姜益中的一件知名作品中，畫面上方是一尊金色佛像，下方則呈現一隻近乎圓形、以白釉示現的月亮罐，彷彿佛陀頭頂之光環。

憑藉金煥基在1950年代及其後數代志同道合藝術家的努力，月亮罐得以享譽全球，成為一個瞬間便可辨識的韓國象徵。月亮罐的知名度、標誌性造型以及韓國民眾對其深厚的情感，甚至使得金暎世（Kim Youngse，生於1950年）在為2018年平昌冬奧會設計盛放火炬之火爐時，採用了月亮罐的造型；當然，該奧運火爐及其支架的材質為鋼鐵、水泥及其他材料，但火爐所呈現的球形正源自於月亮罐的造型。

即使在當今，韓國年輕人對月亮罐的迷戀與喜愛仍未減退，這一現象在其他文化中或難以見到。例如，2019年11月，金南俊（Kim Nam Joon，生於1994年），更廣為人知的藝名 RM——韓國超人氣 K-Pop 樂團 BTS 的隊長——曾發布一張自己坐於地板上，擁抱由當代陶藝家權大燮所製作之現代月亮罐的照片，並附文描述其在該器物前感受到的平靜心境。

對月亮罐這一標誌性器物持續不斷的喜愛，正映射出對韓國國家認同不斷探索與界定的追尋。月亮罐既具歷史淵源，又能反映當代本土與全球的審美趣味，同時在高雅藝術與流行文化中均獲高度推崇，堪稱少數跨越多重文化界限而成為國家象徵之藝術品之一。

Robert D. Mowry 毛瑞Alan J. Dworsky前哈佛藝術博物館中國藝術館長及佳士得高級顧問

關於朝鮮月亮罐的常見問題

一、什麼是朝鮮月亮罐，它們的製作年代為何？朝鮮月亮罐（달항아리）是大型的球形無裝飾白瓷器皿，主要於朝鮮王朝（1392–1910），特別是在18世紀時製作。這些器物由匿名工匠於首爾附近的分院窯製作，原本用途為儲存容器，有時也作為儀式場合中放置大型花卉的花瓶。「月亮罐」這個名稱源自於其圓潤飽滿的造型以及發光般的純白釉色，令人聯想到滿月。

二、真正的月亮罐有哪些定義性的特徵？雖然各式球形器物有時會被稱作月亮罐，但根據韓國文化財廳的官方定義，真正的月亮罐應為球形、無裝飾、具白釉，且高度至少達40公分。儘管18世紀的月亮罐高度從約29至近50公分不等，但尺寸及純白的美學是鑑別月亮罐的關鍵特徵。

三、月亮罐是如何製作的，常見的缺陷又有哪些？月亮罐的特殊之處在於它們由上下兩個半球形瓷碗用瓷泥漿接合製成。由於採用此製作方式，加上高溫（超過攝氏1250度）燒製過程中粘土重量的影響，常導致壺身出現傾斜、隆起、凹陷或塌陷等輕微變形。這些「不完美」反而被當代鑑賞家視為自然形成的個性特徵，反映出窯火與粘土自身的意志。

四、為什麼許多古老的月亮罐會出現顏色變化及磨損痕跡？ 18世紀月亮罐原本呈現從純白到微藍的色調，這與窯內燒製環境有關。但隨著時間推移，不少月亮罐會因液體（如酒、油或醬油）透過內部釉面的細裂紋滲透，形成粉紅、黃色、焦糖色或棕色的局部變化。此外，作為日常用器，多年來難免出現刮痕、缺口或裂縫等痕跡。如今，這些顏色變化與磨損反而被珍視，視為月亮罐悠久歷史的見證。

五、月亮罐在歷史上曾經如何被看待，為何現存數量如此稀少？月亮罐最初是實用性器物，在朝鮮王朝期間並未被視為藝術收藏品。因此，收藏家們往往更傾向收藏中國瓷器，導致月亮罐未得到應有的保存或重視。這種對藝術價值的忽視，造成現今全球估計僅存約二十件40公分以上的大型月亮罐。

六、有哪些重要人物最早認識並推廣月亮罐的藝術價值？ 20世紀初，日本藝術評論家柳宗悅最早肯定了包括月亮罐在內的朝鮮瓷器之美。在韓國，畫家金煥基則是最早賞識並收藏月亮罐的人物之一，他將月亮罐融入自己的藝術創作，並創造了韓語名詞「달항아리」（月亮罐）。他們及其他藝術家的推動，促成月亮罐在國內外逐漸被視為重要的文化藝術品。

七、月亮罐在當代韓國文化中的重要性為何？ 20世紀中葉，韓國經歷日本殖民及韓戰後，迫切尋找象徵自身民族認同的標誌。由於柳宗悅、金煥基等人的推崇，月亮罐成為一種獨特的韓國象徵，代表著內斂的優雅、純潔（符合儒家美學）及民族自豪感。其象徵性地位反映在藝術創作、當代陶藝，甚至在2018年平昌冬奧聖火台設計中。

八、月亮罐的文化遺產如何延續到當代韓國？現今韓國對月亮罐的熱愛與欣賞持續不斷，甚至影響了年輕世代。當代藝術家和陶藝家持續從其造型獲得靈感，並透過新方式重新詮釋經典設計。對月亮罐的持續敬仰反映出對韓國民族認同的持續探索與定義，連結歷史傳統與當代審美情趣，鞏固了其作為珍貴民族象徵的地位。

AN IMPORTANT WHITE PORCELAIN MOON JAR

JOSEON DYNASTY (18TH CENTURY)

Price realised

USD 2,833,000

Estimate

USD 1,800,000 – USD 2,500,000

Closed:

18 Mar 2025

The round well-proportioned jar formed of two parts joined at the belly, set with a slightly everted short neck, covered with a lustrous and translucent glaze, set on a circular upright foot with deep recessed base

17 ¼ in. (45 cm.) high; 17 7⁄8 in. (45.5 cm.) wide

As Round and Bright as the Full Moon:

A Korean Moon Jar

“As round and bright as the full moon” perfectly characterizes Korean moon jars, with their large size, spherical shape, and luminous surfaces. Made in the eighteenth century, during the Joseon dynasty (1392–1910), by anonymous potters at the Bunwon 分院 kilns near Seoul, such vessels served as storage containers and occasionally as vases for monumental floral displays at banquets and ceremonies. Known in Korean as dal hangari 달항아리—literally “moon jars,” the origin of the English name—moon jars have, in modern times, become a symbol of Korean identity and an emblem of national pride, as only Koreans produced moon jars.[i]

Vessels of varied size and shape are often called “moon jars,” but only those jars of spherical form and substantial size actually qualify as moon jars. Although Joseon-dynasty globular jars range from 29 to nearly 50 cm in height, the Korean Cultural Heritage Service officially accepts as moon jars only those spherical, unornamented, white-glazed vessels that measure at least 40 cm in height.

Lacking decoration, moon jars rely on tautness of form and beauty of glaze for aesthetic appeal. Short, and of similar diameter, the mouths and footrings of such globular jars are comparatively small, with the result that the upper and lower halves of the vessel are virtually bilaterally symmetrical; while the footring is usually strictly vertical, the short lip is slightly everted in jars from the first half of the eighteenth century but straight and vertical in those from the second half of the century.

Constructed in two halves, upper and lower, moon jars are formed as two large, identically shaped, hemispherical bowls, each turned on the potter’s wheel in porcelain clays. Once dried to the proper state, the two halves are placed one atop the other, rim to rim, and luted, or joined, together using a slurry of porcelain clay mixed with a little water; the slurry binds the halves together in the raw, or unfired, state and promotes bonding during firing. At the proper stage of dryness, the footring is cut, the mouth opened, and the lip shaped. When bone dry, the fully shaped jar is bisque fired 素燒 between 700° and 1000° C. The bisque firing burns away any organic materials remaining in the clay, just as it removes any remaining moisture, thereby stabilizing the vessel shape and reducing the possibility of warping or slumping during firing; in short, the bisque firing transforms the soft, malleable clay into a hard, durable, porous ceramic body. Applied to the entire vessel, inside and out and including the base, the glaze slurry adheres well to the bisque-fired jar’s porous walls; moon jars thus are fully glazed, except for the bottom of the footring, which is wiped free of glaze slurry after application to prevent the jar from fusing to the kiln furniture during firing. Once completely dry, the jar is placed in the kiln for its high-temperature firing—above 1250° C and often between 1300° and 1400° C—during which the clay body is transformed from opaque, porous, bisque-fired clay to hard, impermeable, translucent, white porcelain, its glaze slurry transformed from opaque clay-slurry to a hard, transparent, lustrous coating of glass.

As a moon jar’s two hemispherical halves are very heavy and as the jar’s widest point is at its bulging center, the sheer weight of the clay often causes slight deformities to develop during firing: thus some jars might lean a bit to one side, for example, while others might show a slight protrusion or modest indentation—a dimple—around the midsection, where the two hemispherical halves were joined, and one face of yet others might sag a little and exhibit a marked distention, the result of gravity pulling the heavy clay downward during firing. Such deformities were not encouraged to form, but Koreans accepted them as part and parcel of such functional jars; although they cherish well-formed, well-fired moon jars in fine condition, many modern connoisseurs also prize those oft-seen imperfections—from warping and sagging to slumping and bulging—as they occurred naturally and without artifice, as they reveal the “will” of the kiln and of the clay, and as they impart a distinct personality to each jar so that no two jars are ever identical.

When newly fired, most eighteenth-century moon jars were white to off-white in color, the transparent glaze sometimes with a hint of sky blue, depending upon the kiln’s atmosphere. Even so, the jars often have tiny flecks of brown or black here and there, the small blemishes due to impurities in the clay, to bits of ash or soot that fell on the jar during firing, or to slight variations in the kiln atmosphere during firing. No matter how homogeneous the jar surfaces might have appeared when new, many eighteenth-century jars now show blushes of color in localized areas, the blushes ranging from pink to yellow, caramel, and dark brown. Although some moon jars perhaps originally held grain or other dry material, most likely contained liquids, from light-colored wine, oil, and vinegar to deep brown soy sauce. Should a glaze crack develop on the jar’s interior—not a crack through the porcelain body and extending to the exterior, but a simple fissure in the glaze on the interior—tiny amounts of the liquid stored in the jar could seep into the crack and spread under the glaze, discoloring the crack and yielding blushes in localized areas. The color of the liquid stored in the jar and the length of time it remained there thus determined the color and intensity of the blush. Apart from blushes of color in localized areas, most moon jars show signs of wear, sometimes even of hard use, and thus may bear scratches, chips, cracks, and divots. Just as they prize natural imperfections in a moon jar’s shape, today’s connoisseurs prize those blushes of color and signs of wear as they convey a sense of the jar’s history and the vicissitudes it has withstood over the centuries just as they impart a distinct personality, rendering each jar unique.

As the functional moon jars were not traditionally prized, let alone collected as works of fine art, very few moon jars are known today. In fact, it is believed that only approximately twenty of the large jars survive worldwide—i.e., those measuring 40.0 cm or more in height. Christie’s sold a superb moon jar from a Japanese private collection and measuring 45.1 cm in height in its New York auction rooms on 21 March 2023 (lot 177);[ii] now, Christie’s offers this splendid, large moon jar, also from a Japanese private collection.

There are at least seven large moon jars in Korea, four of which are designated National Treasures and one of which is a designated Treasure: One in a private collection (National Treasure no. 309),[iii] one in the National Palace Museum of Korea, Seoul (National Treasure no. 310), one in the Uhak Cultural Foundation, Yongin (National Treasure no. 262), one in the National Museum of Korea, Seou (museum no. Jeopsu 702, National Treasure no. 1437),[iv] one in the Amorepacific Museum of Art, Seoul (Treasure),[v] another in the National Museum of Korea (Sinsu 3658),[vi] and one that sold at Seoul Auction on 26 June 2019, lot 179.

The most famous large moon jar outside Korea is the one purchased in Seoul in 1935 by famed British potter Bernard Leach (1887–1979), who is considered the father of British studio pottery. Leach loved the jar, took inspiration from it, and often mentioned it in letters and other writings; on his death it passed to his friend Lucie Rie (1902–1995), the celebrated Austrian-British potter; after Rie’s death, the British Museum, London, acquired the jar, where it can be seen today (1999,0302.1).[vii] The excellent large moon jar now in the collection of the Museum of Oriental Ceramics, Osaka (01404), had been presented by writer Shiga Naoya 志賀直哉 (1883–1971) to Kamitsukasa Kaiun 上司海雲 (1906–1975), the head priest of the well-known Nara temple Tōdai-ji; after it was broken by a burglar in 1995 the jar was repaired and transferred to the Museum of Oriental Ceramics.[viii]

At least four large moon jars are in museum collections in the United States: one each in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (50.1040),[ix] the Harvard Art Museums, Cambridge, MA (1991.609),[x] the Asian Art Museum, San Francisco (B60P110+),[xi] and the Honolulu Museum of Art (7733.1).[xii] Medium-size moon jars—i.e., greater than 30 cm but less than 40 cm in height—appear in New York’s Metropolitan Museum of Art (1979.413.1),[xiii] the Cleveland Museum of Art (1983.28),[xiv] the Art Institute of Chicago (2001.413),[xv] the Birmingham Museum of Art, Birmingham, AL (2002.4),[xvi] and the Asian Art Museum, San Francisco (F2011.12.4).[xvii]

Korean potters produced large, globular jars at least as early as the Three Kingdoms period (traditionally 57 BC–AD 668) as witnessed by the third-to-fifth-century, low-fired earthenware jars in the National Museum of Korea (Jeung 343),[xviii] Harvard Art Museums (1988.420),[xix] and Metropolitan Museum of Art (1981.401).[xx] Even so, creation of the now-iconic moon jars would have to await the coming of the Joseon dynasty and the rise to preeminence of porcelain.

Following the lead of the Chinese, who had mastered the art of producing porcelain in the Tang dynasty (618–907), Korean potters began to manufacture porcelain during the Goryeo dynasty (918–1392) as evinced by a Goryeo porcelain melon-shaped ewer-and-basin set in the Museum of Oriental Ceramics, Osaka (no. 00251)[xxi]; even so, such white wares were overshadowed at the time by the revered celadon wares 青瓷.

When the Joseon dynasty supplanted Goryeo in 1392, the new government took that of China’s Ming dynasty (1368–1644) as its model; as a result, the royal court pushed Buddhism aside and espoused Neo-Confucianism 宋明理學 as the state philosophy, just as it also left behind the previous dynasty’s taste for celadon wares and espoused porcelain as the ceramic ware most preferred for palace use, thus bringing porcelain to the fore and leading to the establishment of numerous porcelain kilns in Korea. As Korean potters had located deposits of the two clays necessary for producing porcelain—kaolin高嶺土 and petuntse 白墩子—and had mastered the techniques of porcelain manufacture by the early to mid-Goryeo period, early Joseon potters were well-prepared to meet the challenge of producing porcelain for the royal palaces, both monochrome white ware and blue-and-white ware.

This moon jar was made at the Bunwon kilns 分院窯, where the finest Korean porcelain was produced during the Joseon dynasty. As the deposits of Korea’s best porcelain clays are in Gwangju, Gyeonggi province 京畿道廣州市, just twenty miles (35 km) to the southeast of Seoul, the Joseon capital, the kilns that produced the finest Korean porcelains developed there. Among those kilns were those at Bunwon-ri 分院里, which had a long and distinguished history stretching back to the mid-1460s, when they were established to produce white wares for the royal court. The Bunwon kilns continued to function as the official court kilns until their privatization in the 1880s. Those kilns manufactured several different grades of porcelains, including those for the royal court as well as ones for various central-government offices and also for private patrons.

Although Joseon potters had produced Chinese-style porcelains with decoration painted in underglaze cobalt blue, copper red, and iron brown as early as the fifteenth century and would continue to produce such wares through the end of the dynasty, Korean taste generally preferred undecorated white wares rather than the more colorful Chinese-style porcelains. As witnessed by this moon jar, the taste was for the subtle, refined, and even austere rather than for the bold and brilliant, which, as Koreans of the Joseon dynasty believed, was in keeping with Neo-Confucian principles and reflected purity, integrity, honesty, and upright character. The nineteenth-century scholar Yi Gyu’gyeong 李圭景 (1788–1856) once remarked “The greatest merit of white porcelain lies in its absolute purity. Any effort to embellish it would only undermine its beauty.” Indeed, white porcelain was believed to perfectly symbolize the Confucian gentleman or junzi 君子; in like manner, Joseon gentlemen, differing markedly from their Chinese counterparts, often wore robes of white silk, as evinced by the early eighteenth-century Portrait of Seo Jiksu 徐直修 (1735–1811) by Kim Hong-do 金弘道 (1745–after 1806) and Yi Myeong’gi 李命基 in the collection of the National Museum of Korea, Seoul (Deoksu 5688, Treasure 1487).[xxii]

Because they were not prized as works of art, the functional moon jars were not collected in traditional times; indeed, Joseon porcelains in general found few admirers before the twentieth century, connoisseurs and collectors preferring Chinese porcelains instead. In fact, it was Yanagi Sōetsu 柳宗悦 (1889–1961), a Japanese art critic, philosopher, and founder of the Mingei 民芸 (Folk Craft) movement, who first took note of Joseon porcelains and first recognized the beauty and importance of Korean moon jars. Together with Kawai Kanjirō 河井寬次郎 (1890–1966), Hamada Shōji 濱田庄司 (1894–1978), and the previously mentioned Englishman Bernard Leach (1887–1979)—all friends, potters and fellow Mingei advocates—Yanagi Sōetsu promoted Joseon porcelains and brought international awareness to Korean moon jars.

In Korea, it was renowned painter Kim Whanki 金煥基 (1913–1974) who first recognized the beauty of Korean moon jars and began to collect them.[xxiii] Among Korea’s most celebrated modern painters, Kim would gain international renown in the late 1960s and early 1970s for his abstract paintings; in the 1940s and 1950s, however, he painted in a representational manner, his works expressing love for his native Korea and thus capturing Korean taste and poetic sentiment through depictions of the moon, mountains, clouds, storks, blossoming plum trees, and, of course, his beloved moon jars. His fellow painter To Sangbong 都相鳳 (1902–1977) followed suit and also painted distinctively Korean scenes, including moon jars, which he sometimes presented as flower vases and other times as works of art on pedestals.

Not only did they promote appreciation of moon jars but Kim Whanki and his circle coined the term dal hangari 달항아리—literally “moon jar”—the name by which such jars are now known in Korean. Before the mid-twentieth century, such jars were simply called keun hangari 큰 항아리, or “large jars,” and occasionally daeho 大壺, wonho 圓壺, or daegwan 大罐 using Chinese-style names for “large jar.”

Sandwiched between China and Japan, two powerful neighbors, each with a long history and a strong artistic and cultural tradition, Korea struggled to find a distinctive emblem to identify itself on the international stage in the mid-twentieth century, particularly after thirty-five years of Japanese colonial rule (1910–1945) and after the devastating Korean War (1950–1953). Despite numerous achievements over the millennia—from powerful Buddhist sculptures and refined paintings to exquisite celadons that even the Chinese admired—Koreans lamented the lack of international recognition and thus sought a uniquely Korean icon that would symbolize the nation, readily distinguishing it from both China and Japan. Thanks to the efforts of Yanagi Sōetsu and to the paintings and advocacy of Kim Whanki and his fellow painters, Korea gradually found that icon in the Joseon moon jar, which was made only in Korea and thus is uniquely Korean.

Once it gained recognition as a primary icon of Korean identity, the moon jar inspired potters to revive the form in porcelain and painters to include representations of such jars in their works (but in manners very different from those of Kim Whanki and his circle). Thus, many distinguished potters have taken up the challenge of recreating moon jars. Among the best-known of those potters are Park Young Sook 朴英淑 (b. 1947), Park Boo Won 樸富元 (b. 1938), Kwon Daesup 權大燮 (b. 1952), Lee Dongsik 李東式, and Kim Seyong 金世龍 (b. 1946), among others. In addition, artists like Choi Young Wook 崔永旭 (b. 1964) present hyperrealistic paintings of Joseon moon jars, while others, such as Kang Ikjoong 姜益中 (b. 1960), incorporate moon-jar imagery into their paintings. In one of Kang’s best-known works features a golden image of the Buddha placed before a nearly circular image of a white moon jar set against a gold background, the moon jar serving as a halo for the Buddha.

Through the efforts of Kim Whanki in the 1950s and of kindred artists in succeeding decades, the moon jar is known ’round the world and stands as an instantly recognizable icon of Korea. So well-known is the moon jar, so iconic its shape, and so beloved by Koreans that Kim Youngse 金暎世 (b. 1950) appropriated the moon jar’s shape for the cauldron he designed to hold the flame for the 2018 Winter Olympics held in Pyeongchang, Korea 江原道平昌郡; the Olympic-flame cauldron and its support of course were made of steel, concrete, and other materials, but the cauldron’s spherical form was that of a moon jar.

Even today’s young Koreans show a fascination with and love of moon jars, a phenomenon that surely would be unlikely in any other culture. In November 2019, for example, Kim Nam Joon 金南俊 (b. 1994)—better known as RM (for “Rap Monster”), the leader of the hugely successful K-Pop band BTS—posted a photo of himself seated on the floor and hugging a contemporary moon jar made by contemporary potter Kwon Daesup 權大燮 with a caption describing the calm he feels in the vessel’s presence.

The continuing fascination with the now-iconic moon jars mirrors the ongoing search for a definition of Korean national identity. At once historical and reflective of contemporary tastes, both local and global, and revered in both fine art and popular culture, the moon jar is one of the very few works of art that has crossed over multiple cultural boundaries to become a national icon.

Robert D. Mowry 毛瑞

Alan J. Dworsky Curator of Chinese Art Emeritus,

Harvard Art Museums, and

Senior Consultant, Christie’s

[i] For additional information on Korean moon jars, see: Charlotte Horlyck, “The Moon Jar: The Making of a Korean Icon,” The Art Bulletin, vol. 104⁄2, June 2022, pp. 118-141.

[ii] See: Christie’s, New York, ed., Japanese and Korean Art, 21 March 2023 (New York: Christie’s), 2023, lot 177; also see: https://www.christies.com/en/lot/lot-6417575?ldp_breadcrumb=back

[iii] See: Leeum Museum, ed., Joseon White Porcelain: Paragon of Virtue (Seoul: Leeum Museum), 2023, cat. no. 35 / 리움 미술관 편집, 《조선 의 백자: 군자 지향》, (서울 특별시: 리움 미술관), 2023, no. 35.

[iv] See: https://www.museum.go.kr/site/eng/relic/search/view?relicId=941

[v] See: Leeum Museum, Joseon White Porcelain, 2023, cat. no. 36; also see: https://apmap.amorepacific.com/en/museum.asp

[vi] See: https://www.museum.go.kr/site/eng/relic/search/view?relicId=8586

[vii] See: See: Jane Portal, Korea: Art and Archaeology (London: British Museum Publications; and New York: Thames and Hudson), 2000, fig. 8; also see: Jane Portal, “A Korean Porcelain ‘Full-Moon’ Jar: Bernard Leach, Lucie Rie and the Collecting of Oriental Ceramics,” Apollo, November 1999, vol. CL, no. 453, pp. 36-37; also see: https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/A_1999-0302-1

[viii] See: https://apisites.jmapps.ne.jp/mocoor/en/collection/2037?keywords=Moon+Jar&kwd_and_or=and&list_type=LLC&list_count=10&title_query=yes&page=1&sort_field=&sort_type=asc

[ix] See: https://collections.mfa.org/objects/20477/moon-jar?ctx=fd2cecb7-8fec-4c96-ae80-04c5d7aa2f33&idx=0

[x] See: https://harvardartmuseums.org/collections/object/201095?position=201095

[xi] See: https://searchcollection.asianart.org/objects/12689/moon-jar?ctx=c87afcf6f3431502188870daa75f60bde349afb6&idx=6

[xii] See: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Large_moon_jar,_18th_century,_Honolulu_Museum_of_Art_3494.1.JPG

[xiii] See: https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/45432

[xiv] See: https://www.clevelandart.org/art/1983.28

[xv] See: https://www.artic.edu/artworks/158472/moon-jar

[xvi] See: https://www.artsbma.org/collection/moon-jar/

[xvii] See: https://searchcollection.asianart.org/objects/19130/globular-jar-moon-jar?ctx=2ce0db6ace673e2d6e6988e780ade98c31bdebdf&idx=0

[xviii] See: https://www.museum.go.kr/site/eng/relic/search/view?relicId=6209

[xix] See: https://harvardartmuseums.org/collections/object/200717?position=200717

[xx] See: https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/57522

[xxi] See: https://apisites.jmapps.ne.jp/mocoor/en/collection/1145?kwd_and_or=and&f50=1&list_type=LLC&title_query=yes&page=3&sort_type=asc&sort_field=&list_count=10

[xxii] See: https://www.museum.go.kr/site/eng/relic/search/view?relicId=1434

[xxiii] For information on Kim Whanki, see: Christine Y. Hahn, “Clay Bodies, Moon Jars, and Materiality: Reconciling Dualisms in the Paintings of Kim Whanki,” positions: asia critique, (Durham, NC: Duke University Press), vol. 24, issue 2, 1 May 2016, pp. 481–512; see: https://read.dukeupress.edu/positions/article-abstract/24⁄2/481⁄21790/Clay-Bodies-Moon-Jars-and-Materiality-Reconciling; also see: Hyang-an Kim, Kim Whanki: Life and Work (Paris: Maeght), 1992; Oh Kwang-su, Kim Whanki: A Critical Biography (Seoul: Youl Hwa Dang Publisher), 1998.

Frequently Asked Questions about Korean Moon Jars

1. What are Korean moon jars and when were they primarily made? Korean moon jars (dal hangari) are large, spherical, undecorated white porcelain vessels made during the Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910), primarily in the 18th century. They were produced by anonymous potters at the Bunwon kilns near Seoul and served as storage containers and occasionally as vases for large floral displays in ceremonial settings. The term "moon jar" comes from their round, full-bodied shape and luminous white glaze, reminiscent of the moon.

2. What are the defining characteristics of a true moon jar? While various globular vessels are sometimes called moon jars, the Korean Cultural Heritage Service officially defines a true moon jar as a spherical, unornamented vessel with a white glaze and a height of at least 40 centimeters. Although 18th-century examples range from about 29 to nearly 50 cm in height, the size and pure white aesthetic are key distinguishing features.

3. How were moon jars created and what are some common imperfections? Moon jars are uniquely constructed from two separate hemispherical bowls joined at the belly using a porcelain clay slurry. This method, combined with the sheer weight of the clay during the high-temperature firing process (over 1250°C), often resulted in slight deformations such as leaning, bulges, indentations, or sagging. These imperfections, rather than being seen as flaws, are often prized by modern connoisseurs as natural occurrences that impart individuality to each jar, reflecting the "will" of the kiln and the clay.

4. Why do many older moon jars exhibit color variations and signs of wear? Originally white to off-white with a potentially faint blue tint from the kiln atmosphere, many 18th-century moon jars now show localized blushes of pink, yellow, caramel, or brown. These color variations often resulted from liquids (like wine, oil, or soy sauce) seeping into fine cracks in the interior glaze and diffusing beneath the surface over time. Additionally, signs of wear such as scratches, chips, and cracks are common due to their functional use over centuries, and these, along with the color variations, are now appreciated as evidence of the jar's history.

5. How were moon jars perceived historically, and why are so few surviving examples? Functioning primarily as utilitarian objects, moon jars were not traditionally considered or collected as fine art during the Joseon Dynasty. Consequently, they were not necessarily preserved or valued by collectors who favored Chinese porcelains. This lack of historical appreciation for their artistic merit is why only an estimated twenty large (40 cm or taller) examples are believed to exist worldwide today.

6. Who were some of the key figures in recognizing and popularizing the artistic significance of moon jars? Japanese art critic Yanagi Sōetsu was pivotal in initially recognizing the beauty of Joseon porcelains, including moon jars, in the early 20th century. In Korea, painter Kim Whanki was among the first to appreciate and collect moon jars, incorporating them into his artwork and coining the Korean term "dal hangari." Their advocacy, along with that of other artists and proponents, helped elevate the status of moon jars as significant cultural and artistic objects, both domestically and internationally.

7. What is the cultural significance of moon jars in modern Korea? In the mid-20th century, Korea sought a unique symbol to represent its national identity, particularly after periods of Japanese colonial rule and the Korean War. Thanks to the recognition by figures like Yanagi Sōetsu and Kim Whanki, the moon jar became that symbol—a uniquely Korean creation embodying understated elegance, purity (in line with Neo-Confucian ideals), and national pride. Its iconic status is reflected in its presence in art, contemporary ceramics, and even in the design of the 2018 PyeongChang Winter Olympics cauldron.

8. How is the legacy of moon jars continuing in contemporary Korean culture? The fascination and appreciation for moon jars persist in modern Korea, even among younger generations. Contemporary artists and potters continue to be inspired by their form, reinterpreting the classic design in new ways. The ongoing reverence for moon jars reflects a continuous exploration and definition of Korean national identity, bridging historical tradition with contemporary aesthetic sensibilities and solidifying their place as a cherished national icon.

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