尊作水牛形，牛腹中空，牛頸和背脊上有三孔，中間一孔套有一個鍋形器，可以取出。從其結構看，這是一件溫酒器，牛背上的鍋形器可以盛酒，空穴注水裝於尊腹用來溫酒。用動物形態設計成酒器尊的外形，為中國青銅器的一個特點。
此器形態穩重，雖然四足矮短，但牛首上充滿張力的雙角、圓瞪的雙目保持了真實感，使造型與實用和諧地結合在一起。牛鼻上穿有一環，說明瞭在春秋時期，已經開始使用穿鼻的方法來馴服牛了，是研究中國牲畜馴化史的一件寶貴的實物資料。
紋飾精美，牛首、頸、身、腿等部位裝飾有以盤繞迴旋的龍蛇紋組成的獸面紋，通過紋飾可以看出印模技術的使用。在牛頸及鍋形器上飾有虎、犀等小動物的浮雕，形態生動，鑄作精美。
尊是盛酒器，從商代早期開始使用。直至戰國時期，是青銅器中使用時間較長的一種器形。基本形制是：大敞口、有肩、高圈足，以圓形為主，亦有方形尊。
FAQ 關於中國青銅器與侯馬遺址
問：什麼是「尊」？文中描述的水牛尊有何獨特之處？
答： 尊是一種青銅盛酒器，最早出現於商代早期，沿用至戰國時期。其典型特徵包括口沿開闊、肩部突出以及高圈足。文中提到的水牛尊以水牛造型為特色，牛腹為中空結構，設計用以溫酒：牛背上的鍋形容器盛酒，通過牛身上的孔注入水，再以熱水加溫酒液。動物形態是中國青銅器的一大特色，而這件尊尤以牛鼻上穿有一環為亮點，顯示春秋時期已使用穿鼻方式馴牛，因而成為研究中國牲畜馴化史的重要實物資料。
問：水牛尊鼻環的意義是什麼？
答： 水牛尊鼻環的意義在於，它證明了在春秋時期人們已透過穿鼻方式馴服牛隻。這一細節使此尊成為研究中國牲畜馴化與飼養技術的珍貴實物依據。
問：水牛尊上主要有哪些裝飾元素？答： 水牛尊的裝飾極為華麗，其中包括由盤繞的龍蛇紋組成的饕餮紋，分布於牛首、頸、身及腿部。此外，在牛頸與鍋形器上飾有虎、犀牛等小動物的浮雕。這些裝飾運用了印模技術，充分展現了當時匠師高超的鑄造與裝飾工藝。
問：侯馬晉國遺址位於何處？為何具有重要歷史意義？
答： 侯馬晉國遺址（又稱新田遺址）位於山西省侯馬市西北部，汾河環繞於西北，澮河自南部橫穿而過。該遺址在春秋中葉至戰國早期（三家分晉）期間，一直是晉國的政治、經濟、商業與文化中心。遺址範圍廣闊，包含古城遺址、青銅鑄造作坊、祭祀場所、盟誓遺址及大型墓葬群等，對研究先秦社會制度變遷與晉國的社會經濟發展具有關鍵意義。
問：在侯馬晉國遺址發現了哪些重要考古成果？
答： 考古學家在侯馬晉國遺址出土了逾十萬件文物，包括一千餘件「侯馬盟書」。該遺址涵蓋古城、鑄銅作坊、祭祀與盟誓區域以及墓葬群。特別值得關注的是，遺址中出土了數以萬計的陶範（fan），用於青銅器鑄造，顯示此處曾是規模龐大的青銅生產中心。
問：侯馬遺址的青銅鑄造流程如何？這對我們有何啟示？
答： 侯馬遺址的青銅鑄造工序極為複雜，包含塑模、製範、烘烤、合範、澆鑄等多個步驟，並辅以錯金銀、鑲嵌等特殊裝飾技術。大批依功能分類、設計精巧的陶範出土，顯示當時晉國工匠精熟掌握傳統的「范鑄法」，並未採納同時期更為便捷的「失蠟法」，卻將既有技術推至極高水準，展現了高超的金屬鑄造能力與工藝成就。
問：在侯馬遺址出土的陶範（fan）有何重要性？
答： 這些陶範象徵著晉國主要的青銅鑄造中心。陶範經分類貯藏於坑中，涵蓋工具範、兵器範、禮器範與帶鈎範等，體現了當時較為成熟與有序的工業生產管理。這些陶範同時也展現了晉國工匠在裝飾技術上的高超造詣。
問：侯馬遺址陶範上的裝飾題材變化，對我們理解社會價值觀有何啟示？
答： 侯馬陶範上的裝飾題材，與商代和西周以動物面、龍紋或神靈形象為主的傳統紋飾不同，開始出現人物形象。這種轉變反映了當時社會思潮的轉向：人們不再一味聚焦神靈與自然，而更多關注人類現世生活與個體存在，凸顯了春秋戰國時期社會文化價值的變遷。
This zun is fashioned in the shape of a water buffalo with a hollow belly. There are three openings on the buffalo’s neck and back; the central opening holds a removable pot-shaped container. Based on its structure, this piece was used for warming wine: the pot on the buffalo’s back would hold wine, while water could be poured into the hollow body of the zun through the remaining openings to heat the wine. Designing wine vessels in animal form is a distinctive feature of Chinese bronzes.
The piece has a stately form. Although the four legs are short and stout, the tension-filled double horns atop the buffalo’s head and the wide, staring eyes lend it a realistic quality, achieving a harmonious blend of form and function. A ring is threaded through the buffalo’s nose, indicating that nose-piercing was already employed during the Spring and Autumn period to tame cattle. This detail makes the vessel an invaluable artifact for studying the history of livestock domestication in China.
The decorative motifs are exceptionally fine. On the buffalo’s head, neck, body, and legs are taotie masks composed of coiling dragon-serpent patterns, revealing the use of impressed-mold techniques. In addition, small reliefs of tigers, rhinoceroses, and other animals embellish the buffalo’s neck and the pot-shaped container, rendered in a lively manner and cast with great skill.
The zun is a type of wine vessel that first appeared in the early Shang dynasty (ca. 16th–11th century BCE) and remained in use up to the Warring States period (5th–3rd century BCE), making it one of the longest-used forms among Chinese bronzes. Its basic shape features a wide-open mouth, a pronounced shoulder, and a tall ring foot, most commonly round in shape, although square zun also exist.
犧尊 上海博物館
年代： 春秋晚期
類別： 銅器酒器、禮器
尺寸： 高33.7釐米，長58.7釐米，腹深12.7釐米
工藝： 範鑄法、嵌鑄、模印
來源： 山西省大同市渾源縣李峪村出土
主題： 牛、龍、獸面、虎、犀
侯馬晉國遺址
侯馬晉國遺址又稱新田遺址，位於山西省侯馬市西北部，汾河縈繞於西北，澮河橫貫其南部，西周初年，周成王分封他的弟弟叔虞於唐，叔虞子燮父改國號為“晉”。春秋中葉，晉景公遷都新田（今侯馬）。到戰國早期三家分晉為止，新田一直是晉國政治、經濟、商業、文化的中心。
侯馬晉國遺址分布面積約50余平方千米，東西橫跨9千米，南北寬7千米，囊括了古城遺址、鑄銅遺址、祭祀遺址、盟誓遺址、墓葬群等，發掘遺跡共40余處，出土各類文物10萬余件，其中有1000余件“侯馬盟書”等。侯馬晉國遺址的古遺址群規模大、類型完整，展示了晉國的社會制度、政治制度等，為研究先秦社會變革和晉國社會經濟發展提供了實物資料。
山西省侯馬市地處臨汾盆地南緣，歷史悠久。其興起可追溯至春秋戰國時期的晉景公在位年代。當時晉國六卿之一的趙氏勢力極其強大，這在很大程度上仰賴曾與晉文公並肩作戰的趙盾。趙盾執政期間，不僅把持國政，甚至弒殺了昏庸的晉靈公。儘管趙盾去世後，趙氏依然對晉公室形成強大掣肘，但其後因內亂爆發並引發了“趙氏孤兒”事件，晉景公才得以趁勢削弱趙氏。
由於趙氏勢力難以正面對抗，晉景公遂遷都以避其鋒芒，將國都自絳遷至新田，並改稱“新絳”。此後，新絳成為晉國晚期的最後一座都城，自晉景公起，直至三家分晉而“晉絕不祀”，諸多重大歷史變故皆在此地展開。
1952年，侯馬白店村出土了大量繩紋陶片。此類陶片並非一般日用陶器的碎片，而是鑄造三代青銅器過程中所產生的遺留物。更值得注意的是，白店村一帶的考古工作揭示了極為豐富的晉國遺存。
在侯馬市西側的考古發掘中，人們發現了一處古城遺址及數以萬計的模範塊。研究者普遍認為，此處即為晉國規模宏大的鑄銅中心。當時的青銅器鑄造程序十分繁複，需經過塑模、翻範、烘烤、合範、澆鑄等多重工序，亦輔以錯金銀、鑲嵌等特殊技術。從出土實物可見，晉國工匠已能嫻熟運用這些工藝，並製作出在同時代堪稱獨步一時的青銅器。
模範，又稱“陶模範”或“泥範”，乃以陶泥製作而成。成形後須先行自然乾燥，再經低溫烘烤，以保證堅固度與穩定性。現今考古出土的陶範多為含砂黏土或黏土配砂所製。所謂“範”，即鑄造時所使用的外模，主要複製器物凸起的外部形制，只要灌入銅液，便可鑄出具有複雜外觀的青銅器；而“模”則與最終成形的青銅器在形制上完全相同。關於這些陶模範由無到有、再由模到範至成器的具體工序，至今仍未有定論。
在侯馬鑄銅遺址，出土的大量陶範並非雜亂拋棄，而是按工具範、兵器範、禮器範、帶鈎範等類別，分類置於相隔約百米的灰坑中，佈局井然。侯馬陶範在春秋戰國的各類出土模範乃至前後時代的青銅工藝史上，都具有里程碑意義。商代與西周初期，青銅鑄造工藝已相當成熟，但在裝飾與細節的呈現上，尚有許多改進空間。進入春秋戰國時期，除持續運用範鑄法外，又出現了失蠟法等更為便捷的新技術，只需以蠟製成預想形制，再以泥範包覆蠟型後澆灌銅液即可。然而，根據現有考古發現，侯馬鑄銅遺址並未採納失蠟法，而是沿襲傳統範鑄法，並將青銅器的裝飾技術推至新的頂峰，充分展現了春秋戰國時期晉國高超的青銅鑄造與工藝成就。
尺寸僅數釐米見方的模範塊卻呈現出極為繁複的裝飾結構。尤為引人注目的是填紋部位，採用細若髮絲的紋飾組成，其工藝之精微至今仍未為學界所完全釐清。究竟是何種能工巧匠得以在如此有限的空間內完成近乎毫無差池的高精度作品，至今仍是青銅器研究中的一大謎題。
同時，侯馬陶範也顯示出春秋戰國時期青銅器裝飾題材的轉變。商代與西周時期的青銅器多以獸面、龍紋或神靈形象為主要紋飾；而在侯馬鑄銅遺址中，人物題材的陶範逐漸出現，充分反映出當時社會思潮的改變：由過去對神靈與自然的崇奉，轉向對人類現世生活與個體存在的關注。
The Houma Jin State Site, also referred to as the Xintian Site, is located in northwestern Houma City, Shanxi Province. Bounded by the Fen River to its northwest and crossed by the Kuai River in the south, the area has deep historical roots. In the early Western Zhou period, King Cheng of Zhou enfeoffed his younger brother Shu Yu in Tang. Shu Yu’s son, Xie Fu, later changed the state name to “Jin.” In the mid–Spring and Autumn period, Duke Jing of Jin moved the capital from Jiang to Xintian (present-day Houma). From that time until the early Warring States period, when the state of Jin was partitioned by the three major clans (the so-called “Three Splits of Jin”), Xintian remained the political, economic, commercial, and cultural hub of Jin.
Covering an expanse of over 50 square kilometers—about 9 kilometers from east to west and 7 kilometers from north to south—the Houma Jin State Site (Xintian Site) encompasses an ancient city site, bronze-casting complexes, sacrificial precincts, oath-taking sites, and extensive burial grounds. Archaeologists have excavated more than 40 individual sites within this area and have unearthed in excess of 100,000 artifacts, including over 1,000 Houma Oath Slips (Houma meng shu). This broad spectrum of archaeological remains offers vital insights into Jin’s social and political institutions, shedding light on pre-Qin social transformations and the development of Jin’s society and economy.
Historically, Houma City stands on the southern edge of the Linfen Basin and can trace its rise to the reign of Duke Jing of Jin during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods. At that time, the Zhao clan, one of the six great ministerial lineages of Jin, wielded formidable power—largely thanks to Zhao Dun, who had fought alongside Duke Wen of Jin. While in power, Zhao Dun not only controlled the state’s affairs but also orchestrated the assassination of the inept Duke Ling of Jin. Although the Zhao clan continued to pose a major check on the ducal house even after Zhao Dun’s death, internal turmoil within the clan led to the storied “Orphan of the Zhao” affair, providing Duke Jing with the opportunity to diminish the clan’s influence.
Unable to confront the Zhao clan directly, Duke Jing opted to relocate the capital. Abandoning Jiang, he transferred the seat of government to Xintian—thence referred to as “Xinjiang.” This new capital became the last major seat of power in the final phase of Jin; the succession of significant events, from Duke Jing’s time until the “extinction of Jin sacrifices” following the partition of the state, all played out on this very land.
In 1952, excavations at Baidian Village in Houma yielded large quantities of pottery sherds bearing cord-mark designs. These fragments, however, were not remnants of domestic ware; rather, they were byproducts of bronze-casting activities dating to the Three Dynasties period (traditionally encompassing the Xia, Shang, and Zhou). Subsequent archaeological work in the vicinity of Baidian Village brought to light a wealth of cultural remains associated with the state of Jin.
On the western outskirts of Houma City, excavations uncovered an ancient city site along with tens of thousands of clay molds (fan). Most scholars concur that this location was a major bronze-casting center of Jin. The bronze-casting process at the time was highly intricate, involving multiple steps: clay modeling, mold-making, firing, mold assembly, and metal pouring, supplemented by specialized techniques such as gold and silver inlay. Excavated materials reveal that the artisans of Jin had already mastered these methods, producing bronze objects unparalleled elsewhere during that era.
The so-called “molds” (fan), also termed “clay molds” or “earthen molds,” were fashioned from clay. After shaping, they were air-dried and then fired at low temperature to ensure sufficient strength and stability. Archaeological finds indicate that most of these molds were made from sand-tempered clay or clay mixed with sand. In essence, the fan served as an external casting shell replicating the raised contours of the final object; once molten bronze was poured in, it would yield a complex three-dimensional form. By contrast, a “model” (mu) was shaped identically to the intended bronze object itself. The precise sequence of operations—from creating the clay model through producing the mold and ultimately casting the final piece—remains incompletely understood by modern scholarship.
At the Houma bronze-casting site, the large number of molds discovered was not randomly discarded but meticulously categorized according to function or artifact type—such as tool molds, weapon molds, ritual vessel molds, and belt hook molds—and deposited in refuse pits spaced roughly 100 meters apart. In the broader timeline of bronze craftsmanship, from the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods to earlier and later eras, the Houma molds represent a major technological milestone. Although bronze-casting in the Shang and early Western Zhou periods was already quite advanced, there was still scope for refining decorative details. By the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, artisans had introduced not only advanced mold-casting techniques but also more convenient innovations such as the lost-wax method, which involved forming a wax model, surrounding it with clay, and then pouring in molten bronze. Nevertheless, archaeological evidence indicates that the Houma casting center continued using traditional piece-mold techniques, driving decorative methods to unprecedented levels and showcasing the remarkable artistry and expertise of Jin’s metalworkers in that era.
Even small mold fragments—sometimes mere centimeters across—display extraordinarily complex decorative programs. Particularly noteworthy are “filled” motifs formed by hair-thin lines, so delicate that the methods employed to achieve them remain elusive to modern researchers. It also remains a subject of scholarly debate precisely how these artisans, operating within such tight constraints, managed to produce objects of such refined and seemingly flawless execution.
The Houma molds further illustrate a shift in the decorative themes of Spring and Autumn–era bronzes. In the Shang and Western Zhou periods, the surfaces of bronze vessels were dominated by animal masks, dragon designs, or other theomorphic motifs. However, molds bearing human figures begin to appear at the Houma site. This new thematic emphasis directly reflects the sociocultural transition of the time, indicating that focus was gradually shifting away from depictions of the divine and the natural toward greater attention to human existence and worldly concerns.
FAQ on Chinese Bronze Vessels and the Houma Site
What is a "zun" and what is unique about the water buffalo zun described in the text?
A zun is a type of bronze wine vessel that first appeared in the early Shang dynasty and remained in use up to the Warring States period. It typically has a wide-open mouth, a pronounced shoulder, and a tall ring foot. The water buffalo zun is unique because it's shaped like a water buffalo with a hollow belly, designed to warm wine. The pot on its back would hold wine, while water poured into the buffalo's body through openings would heat the wine. The animal form is a characteristic of Chinese bronze work, and this piece has the added detail of a ring in the buffalo's nose, indicating early methods of cattle domestication.
What is the significance of the ring in the water buffalo's nose on the zun?
The ring threaded through the buffalo's nose is significant because it indicates that nose-piercing was already employed during the Spring and Autumn period as a method to tame cattle. This makes the vessel an invaluable artifact for understanding the history of livestock domestication in China.
What are some of the key decorative elements found on the water buffalo zun?
The zun is richly decorated with several key elements. It features taotie masks formed from coiling dragon-serpent patterns on the buffalo’s head, neck, body, and legs. There are also small reliefs of tigers, rhinoceroses, and other animals that embellish the buffalo’s neck and the pot-shaped container. These decorations highlight the use of impressed-mold techniques and the skill of the artisans of the time.
Where is the Houma Jin State Site located, and why is it historically important?
The Houma Jin State Site, also known as the Xintian Site, is located in northwestern Houma City, Shanxi Province. It was the political, economic, commercial, and cultural center of the Jin State from the mid–Spring and Autumn period until the early Warring States period. The site encompasses ancient city ruins, bronze-casting facilities, sacrificial and oath-taking sites, and cemeteries. It provides valuable insight into the social and political institutions of the Jin State, as well as the pre-Qin social transformations.
What kind of archaeological finds were made at the Houma Jin State Site?
Archaeologists at the Houma Jin State Site have unearthed over 100,000 artifacts including more than 1,000 "Houma Oath Slips." These remains include an ancient city site, bronze-casting complexes, sacrificial precincts, oath-taking sites, and burial grounds. Notably, tens of thousands of clay molds (fan), crucial for bronze casting, were also discovered, indicating that the site was a major bronze production center.
What was the bronze-casting process like at the Houma site and what can this tell us? The bronze-casting process at the Houma site was highly intricate, involving multiple steps such as clay modeling, mold-making, firing, mold assembly, and metal pouring, as well as specialized techniques like gold and silver inlay. The discovery of large quantities of molds that were categorized by function, as well as the complex designs found on the molds, reveal the high level of skill of Jin’s metalworkers in employing the traditional piece-mold techniques, and it shows that, rather than adopting the lost-wax method, they were able to push existing methods to new heights.
What is the significance of the clay molds (fan) found at the Houma site?
The clay molds, or fan, are significant because they reveal a major bronze-casting center of Jin. These molds were used in the casting process, and the site's meticulous categorization of these molds into different types, such as tool molds, weapon molds, and ritual vessel molds, suggests a structured and advanced industrial approach. The molds also showcase a high level of mastery in decorative techniques.
How do the decorative themes on the molds at Houma reflect changing social values? The Houma site's molds show a shift in decorative themes from the Shang and Western Zhou periods, where animal masks, dragons, and theomorphic motifs were dominant, to the Spring and Autumn period when figures representing humans appeared. This shift demonstrates a transition in societal focus from the divine and natural realms towards human existence and worldly affairs, highlighting a change in the social and cultural values of the time.
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