宋代筆記 vol.127 克利夫蘭博物館：宋代木雕十一面觀音立像，埃斯肯納齊經手 - Cleveland Museum, Wooden Standing Guanyin Bodhisattva, Sold by Eskenazi Ltd London
- SACA
- Mar 1
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這尊觀音立像乃由單塊柳木（柳屬植物）雕刻而成。
菩薩是一位覺悟者，致力於喚醒眾生的靈性覺醒。以慈悲著稱的觀音菩薩，其多樣化的化身形式極可能是中國佛教中最受信仰的神祇之一。此件密教形式的立姿觀音，共設有十一個頭部，其中主頭之上另有數個較小的輔頭；最上方的頭象徵阿彌陀佛，與觀音菩薩有著密切聯繫。這十一個頭部則象徵著佛陀邁向覺悟之路上的各個階段。
來源與流傳記錄
1944年10月19日
(紐約蘇富比拍賣，1944年10月19日拍賣，第229號拍品，售予盧芹齋 C. T. Loo)
1944–1952年
(盧芹齋 C. T. Loo [1880–1957]，活動於巴黎與紐約)
不確定年份至1980年
(安妮·瓦里安特·伯內特·坦迪 [1900–1980]，來自德州沃斯堡，委託紐約蘇富比拍賣)
1981年11月6日
(紐約蘇富比拍賣，1981年11月6日拍賣，第50號拍品)
1981年
(英國倫敦 J. E. Eskenazi, Ltd.，售予克利夫蘭藝術博物館)
1981年至今
(現藏於美國俄亥俄州克利夫蘭的克利夫蘭藝術博物館)
參考文獻
Sotheby Parke Bernet Inc., New York. Chinese Objects of Art. 1944年10月19日。拍品號229。（提及：第229號拍品）
Sotheby's New York. Fine Chinese Ceramics, Works of Art and Paintings. 1981年11月6日。拍品號50。（重現：第50號拍品）
Lee, Sherman E. “The Year in Review for 1981.” The Bulletin of the Cleveland Museum of Art 69, no. 2 (1982年2月): 39–82。（重現：第71頁；提及：第83頁，第136號）
“Annual Report for 1981.” The Bulletin of the Cleveland Museum of Art 69, no. 6 (1982年6月): 159–206。（重現：第174頁）
Norton, Thomas E. 由 Douglas Dillon 作序. 100 Years of Collecting in America: The Story of Sotheby Parke Bernet. 紐約：H.N. Abrams, 1984。（提及：第218頁）
Guo li gu gong bo wu yuan 國立故宮博物院. Hai wai yi zhen. fo xiang [海外遺珎. 佛像 = 中國藝術在海外收藏. 佛教雕塑]. 臺北市：國立故宮博物院, 1990。（重現：第152頁）
Cunningham, Michael R., Stanislaw J. Czuma, Anne E. Wardwell, and J. Keith Wilson. Masterworks of Asian Art. 克利夫蘭，俄亥俄州：克利夫蘭藝術博物館, 1998。（重現：第56-57頁）
Sun, Di, 主編. Zhongguo liu shi hai wai Fo jiao zao xiang zong he tu mu [中國流失海外佛教造像總合圖目 = 海外收藏中的中國佛教造像綜合插圖目錄]. 北京：外文出版社, 2005。（重現：第7卷，第1364頁）
“New in the Galleries.” Cleveland Art: Cleveland Museum of Art Members Magazine 59, no. 1 (2019年1/2月): 封底。（重現並提及：封底）
Sotheby's (Firm), Hong Kong. Important Chinese art. 2019年10月8日。（重現：第169頁）
展覽歷程
The Year in Review for 1981.
主辦：克利夫蘭藝術博物館，克利夫蘭，俄亥俄州
(1982年2月17日至3月21日)
十一面觀音問答
1. 什麼是十一面觀音？十一面觀音（亦稱十一面觀世音菩薩）是觀世音菩薩的一種特殊化現，著重展現其無盡慈悲。其特徵在於擁有十一個頭部，象徵菩薩能夠洞察十方眾生的苦難，並以無所不在的方式提供救濟與幫助。
2. 十一個面相各代表什麼意義？這十一個面具有多重象徵意涵。一般來說，它們表達了菩薩能夠聆聽並觀照來自十方（包括上下左右及前後）眾生的哀求，展現出無所不在的慈悲。具體解釋上，有的傳統認為這些面代表了通往覺悟之路的各個階段，有的說明它們象徵著十波羅蜜（pāramitās），也有觀點認為其含義在於克服十一種根本無明。此外，有些學派還將這些面部分為慈、怒、怪等不同表情，說明菩薩能根據不同眾生的根器與需求而示現不同形相。
3. 十一面觀音的起源與歷史發展如何？十一面觀音起源於印度，最早的已知形象可追溯至晚5世紀或早6世紀的浮雕作品。隨後，此形象隨著大乘佛教的傳播在東亞廣為流行，尤其在唐代中國獲得高度發展。從中國，十一面觀音進一步傳入朝鮮和日本，並與當地佛教實踐及藝術傳統相融合。藏傳佛教也採納了此形象，常與千手觀音結合運用，成為修持大悲法門的重要對象。
4. 與十一面觀音相關的重要經典有哪些？有多部佛教經典記載了十一面觀音，其中包括：《佛說十一面觀世音神咒經》、《十一面神咒心經》以及《十一面觀自在菩薩心密言念誦儀軌經》。這些典籍詳述了有關觀音咒語、修持儀軌與其起源故事，為十一面觀音的信仰與造像提供了理論依據。此外，《大悲心陀羅尼經》亦與此有關，進一步豐富了觀音信仰的內容。
5. 十一面觀音的造像風格在各地有何不同？十一面觀音的造像因地區而異，呈現出跨文化藝術交流與地方審美特色的融合。例如，唐代中國的雕塑通常呈現出受古典印度藝術影響的豐滿與圓潤風格；而日本奈良及平安時期的造像則以簡樸而嚴肅見長。西藏和尼泊爾的作品多以銅像或鎏金造像為主，工藝精細；在某些西亞地區，則以石雕為主要形式。這些差異反映了不同地區在材料運用、造型技法及宗教審美上的獨特發展。
6. 與十一面觀音相關的宗教實踐有哪些？十一面觀音的信仰修持包括誦持咒語、進行各種儀式、供養及觀想等實踐。信眾通過誦經持咒以祈求護佑、化解災難並增長智慧。在藏傳佛教中，十一面觀音常被用作大悲法門的核心修持對象，並作為通往覺悟的重要引導。在漢傳及日本佛教中，相關儀軌與禮拜活動也廣泛存在，均強調其救苦救難的作用。
7. 十一面觀音在東亞的文化影響如何？十一面觀音在東亞佛教及民間信仰中具有深遠的文化影響。它不僅豐富了觀世音菩薩信仰的內涵，更被視作國家與家庭的守護神。其形象被廣泛運用於藝術、文學、戲曲與民間工藝中，成為慈悲與救度精神的象徵。無論是在宮廷儀式、寺廟供奉，還是在民間祭祀活動中，十一面觀音均扮演著重要的精神與文化角色，激發了人們對慈悲智慧的崇仰和學術研究的興趣。
8. 我在哪裡可以看到十一面觀音的藝術作品？十一面觀音的藝術作品遍布亞洲各地，包括博物館、寺廟及私人收藏。重要的實例有中國敦煌石窟中的壁畫、唐代及宋代的雕塑與繪畫作品；日本各地寺廟（如奈良的多座寺院）中亦供奉著重要的十一面觀音雕像；此外，西藏和尼泊爾等地的銅像及鎏金造像也極具代表性。美國的克利夫蘭藝術博物館便收藏有一尊木雕立姿的十一面觀音菩薩，均為學術研究與國際交流的重要資源。
十一面觀音研究
歷史背景 (Historical Background)
十一面觀音，亦稱十一面觀世音菩薩，源於印度，是觀音菩薩的早期特殊形象之一。雖然常被歸類為密教（坦陀羅）形式，但研究指出十一面觀音的造像在密教興起之前已出現。
現存最早的十一面觀音形象可追溯至5世紀末至6世紀初印度西部孟買附近的坎赫里石窟第41窟浮雕。該石刻顯示觀音頭頂安置十個小佛面，是印度僅存的例子。此後，十一面觀音形象在東亞地區大量湧現：敦煌石窟中有眾多十一面觀音壁畫（僅次於千手觀音），顯示其在中土受歡迎的程度；7世紀傳入中國後，十一面觀音信仰於唐代極盛，被視為中國最早流行的變化觀音之一。
唐代武則天時期，大量十一面觀音造像出現，並在密教傳入後成為重要的禮敬對象。由中國，十一面觀音進一步傳播至朝鮮半島與日本：新羅時期的石窟庵（8世紀）即供奉十一面觀音浮雕；日本奈良時代起，多座寺院奉十一面觀音為本尊（如奈良長谷寺等），此後在平安時代持續興盛。藏傳佛教亦深受影響，將十一面觀音與千手觀音結合為觀世音菩薩的大悲化身，成為西藏佛教修持的核心形象之一。此外，透過陸上和海上絲路，此尊觀音亦影響到了東南亞等地區的佛教藝術與信仰，形成半個亞洲皆供奉觀音的景象。
Eleven-faced Guanyin, also known as Eleven-headed Avalokiteśvara, originated in India and is one of the early specialized forms of the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara. Although often classified as an esoteric (Tantric) form, studies indicate that depictions of the Eleven-faced Avalokiteśvara predate the rise of Vajrayāna Buddhism. The earliest surviving representation is a relief carving in Cave 41 at Kanheri (near Mumbai), dating to the late 5th or early 6th century, showing Avalokiteśvara with ten small heads atop his own. This is the only known example from India with eleven heads.
Thereafter, the Eleven-faced form proliferated across East Asia. Numerous murals of Eleven-headed Avalokiteśvara are found in the Dunhuang caves of China (second in number only to the Thousand-armed form), attesting to its popularity in Chinese Buddhism. After this form was introduced to China in the 7th century, its cult flourished during the Tang Dynasty, making it one of the earliest Avalokiteśvara transformation figures popular in China. During Empress Wu Zetian’s era in the Tang, many Eleven-faced Guanyin statues were commissioned, and with the advent of Esoteric Buddhism, this form became an important object of veneration.
From China, the Eleven-faced Guanyin spread to the Korean Peninsula and Japan. In Silla Korea, for example, the mid-8th century Seokguram Grotto enshrines a relief of an eleven-headed Avalokiteśvara. In Japan, beginning in the Nara period, numerous temples (such as Hase-dera in Nara) installed Eleven-headed Kannon as their principal deity, a practice that continued into the Heian period. Tibetan Buddhism was also deeply influenced by this form, merging it with the Thousand-armed Avalokiteśvara as a great compassionate manifestation – a central figure in Tibetan practice. Through overland and maritime Silk Roads, this Avalokiteśvara form also touched parts of Southeast Asia, contributing to Avalokiteśvara devotion across half of Asia.
宗教意涵 (Religious Significance)
十一面觀音頭戴十一尊面相，蘊含深刻的慈悲與智慧象徵意義。根據佛經傳說，觀音菩薩在救度眾生時目睹眾生苦難之深廣，悲憫交加之下頭顱裂成碎片，阿彌陀佛遂以神力將其化為十一個頭顱並賜予千手，助其以更多眼目觀照苦難、以更多妙手救拔眾生。因此，十一面象徵菩薩能從十方世界悉聞眾生呼救、示現無所不在的慈悲（又稱「普門示現」或「正遍知」）。
不同行者對十一面有多種詮釋：中國唐代高僧慧沼在《十一面神咒心經義疏》中將十一個面容分為慈、怒、怪三類，說明菩薩為度善惡不同根器眾生而示現種種慈悲與威嚴形相，以降服其煩惱引入佛道。
西藏第二世達賴喇嘛則解釋，十一面代表菩薩修行圓滿的「十波羅蜜」，最上之第十一面象徵法身（真如實相）。另有說法指十一首象徵菩薩修證的十地階位以及最頂的佛果；或寓意眾生為無明所困之十一種根本煩惱，菩薩以智慧一一對治將其拔除。在某些圖像中，若不將本身頭計入而呈現十二頭，則被解讀為象徵十二因緣法的圓滿。總的來說，十一面觀音的多重面相彰顯觀音菩薩「遍視一切、救度眾生」的悲願，強調其無所不見、無所不聞的救苦功能，以及同時具備慈悲與威嚴兩種相以契合不同眾生需求的善巧方便。
The Eleven-faced Avalokiteśvara, crowned with ten additional faces, embodies profound symbolism of compassion and wisdom. According to Buddhist lore, when Avalokiteśvara beheld the vast suffering of sentient beings during his salvation work, his despair and compassion were so intense that his head shattered into pieces. The Buddha Amitābha then used his power to transform these fragments into ten heads and bestowed upon him a total of eleven heads and a thousand arms, enabling the bodhisattva to see all suffering with multiple eyes and rescue beings with myriad hands. Thus, the eleven faces signify that the bodhisattva can look in all directions and hear the cries of beings in every quarter, manifesting omnipresent compassion (often termed “Samantamukha,” meaning the one who looks everywhere).
Different traditions offer various interpretations of the eleven heads. The Tang dynasty monk Huizhao, in his commentary Explanation of the Eleven-Faced Mantra Sūtra, grouped the faces into benign, wrathful, and fantastical expressions, explaining that Avalokiteśvara assumes diverse kind or fierce countenances to educate and save beings of different dispositions. In Tibetan understanding, the Second Dalai Lama explained the eleven faces as representing the ten pāramitās (perfections), with the highest, eleventh face symbolizing the Dharmakāya (the Truth body of Buddhahood). Another interpretation holds that the ten lower heads correspond to the ten bodhisattva levels (bhūmis) and the topmost head signifies the attainment of Buddhahood. Yet another view sees the eleven heads as emblematic of the eleven fundamental types of ignorance (avidyā) afflicting beings, which the bodhisattva’s wisdom obliterates.
In some iconography, Avalokiteśvara is depicted with a total of twelve heads (counting an extra head above his own), which is interpreted as representing the twelve links of dependent origination. Overall, the multiple faces of the Eleven-headed Avalokiteśvara highlight the bodhisattva’s vow to “perceive every sound of suffering and liberate all beings,” emphasizing his all-seeing, all-hearing salvific power and the skilful means of manifesting both gentle mercy and awe-inspiring sternness to suit the needs of different beings.
造像風格 (Iconographic Styles)
由於十一面觀音起源於印度，其造像風格隨地區和時代而異，反映出跨文化藝術交流與本土審美的融合。
唐代中國流行十一面觀音時，正值密教傳入及皇家護持佛法之際，雕像常呈多頭多臂之姿，造型受印度古典藝術影響，體現豐滿圓潤且富有感性的風格。例如陝西西安發現的初唐石灰岩十一面觀音造像（約公元703年）身形端莊，頭戴十層小佛冠，線條流暢優美，兼具印度笈多藝術的柔和寫實與中土雕塑的雍容。
在西域和尼泊爾、西藏地區，十一面觀音常以銅像或鎏金佛像形式出現，造型精緻繁複：印度和尼泊爾的作品傾向纖細優雅，飾以華麗寶冠與瓔珞；西藏風格則發展出獨特的密教象徵，比如憤怒相與寂靜相兼具、手持念珠、蓮花、法輪等法器，充分體現密宗藝術的神秘性和儀軌功能。在中國本土，除石刻造像外，敦煌壁畫中亦有大量十一面觀音彩繪形象，以線描和疊色呈現菩薩的多面相與多臂，顯示出唐代繪畫高超的寫實與裝飾技巧。
日本的十一面觀音造像風格經歷了飛鳥、奈良至平安時期的轉變：奈良時代早期的法隆寺金堂壁畫第十二號壁便繪有十一面觀音，是現存最古老的十一面觀音畫像之一；奈良與平安時代的木造佛像中，十一面觀音多以一木造或乾漆造技法製成立像，體現出古樸莊嚴的風貌。例如奈良8世紀聖林寺的乾漆十一面觀音立像，通高超過2公尺，比例修長而姿態安詳，被譽為法華寺式觀音的代表。
平安中期之後，日本雕像轉向檀木雕刻的細膩作風，如平安後期的十一面觀音立像（東京國立博物館藏）比例勻稱，面相溫和，頭上十小面排列有序，展現出日本對觀音造像的審美再創造。總體而言，各地十一面觀音造像既保留了觀音慈悲莊嚴的共通特質，又融入了當地材質與技法：印度和中亞偏好石雕與金銅，風格寫實生動；中原地區善用石窟雕刻與壁畫，人物豐滿華麗；日本偏重木雕與彩色漆繪，風格洗練靜穆；而西藏及蒙古地區則以鎏金銅像與唐卡繪畫見長，強調密法象徵。這些風格變遷反映出十一面觀音形象在亞洲藝術史中的演變與傳播脈絡。
Because the Eleven-faced Avalokiteśvara originated in India, its iconography varies by region and era, reflecting a fusion of cross-cultural artistic exchange and local aesthetics. During the Tang Dynasty in China, when the Eleven-faced Guanyin rose to prominence under imperial patronage and the influence of newly imported Esoteric Buddhism, sculptures of this deity often featured multiple heads and arms. Their style was influenced by classical Indian art, exhibiting full, sensuous forms. For example, an early Tang limestone statue of Eleven-headed Guanyin from Xi’an (c. 703 CE) has a dignified stance with ten small Buddha heads in tiers atop the main head. Its flowing lines and balanced proportions combine the soft realism of India’s Gupta art with the stately presence of Chinese sculpture.
In the Western Regions, as well as in Nepal and Tibet, Eleven-faced Avalokiteśvara images frequently appear as bronze or gilt statues with intricate details. Indian and Nepalese versions tend to be slender and graceful, adorned with ornate crowns and jewelry. Tibetan renditions developed distinctive tantric symbols – for instance, combining peaceful and wrathful facial expressions, holding ritual objects like prayer beads, lotuses, and dharma-wheels – embodying the mystical and liturgical functions of Vajrayāna art. In China, besides stone sculptures, numerous painted images of Eleven-faced Guanyin exist in Dunhuang murals, rendered with fluid brushlines and layered mineral pigments. These murals depict the bodhisattva’s multiple heads and arms with a high degree of realism and decorative detail, showcasing the superb painting techniques of the Tang. In Japan, the style of Eleven-headed Kannon evolved through the Asuka, Nara, and Heian periods. One of the earliest surviving paintings is the 7th-century mural on the 12th wall of Hōryū-ji’s Golden Hall, which portrays an Eleven-headed Kannon. In the Nara and Heian periods, wooden statues of Eleven-faced Kannon were often made using the single-block carving or dry lacquer techniques, giving them a simple yet solemn appearance.
For instance, the 8th-century dry-lacquer Eleven-headed Kannon standing statue at Shōrinji (Nara), over 2 meters tall, has an elegantly elongated body and serene demeanor, exemplifying the classic “Hokke-ji style” Kannon. By the mid-Heian period, Japanese sculpture embraced more delicate carving in sandalwood: a late Heian Eleven-headed Kannon (held at the Tokyo National Museum) shows harmonious proportions, gentle facial features, and ten small heads neatly arranged atop, reflecting Japan’s aesthetic reinterpretation of the icon. Overall, while all these regional images preserve the compassionate and majestic character of Avalokiteśvara, they incorporate local materials and techniques. Indian and Central Asian examples favor stone and gilt bronze with vivid realism; China excelled in stone carving and mural painting, producing full-bodied and splendid figures; Japan specialized in wooden statues and polychrome lacquer, yielding refined and meditative forms; Tibet and Mongolia created gilded bronzes and thangkapaintings rich in tantric symbolism. These stylistic developments chart the evolution and dissemination of the Eleven-headed Avalokiteśvara across Asian art history.
地區變遷 (Regional Transmission)
十一面觀音形象從印度向外傳播的過程中，各地佛教賦予其獨特的詮釋與崇奉方式。據學者考證，印度教濕婆（作為憤怒之羅陀Rudra的十一種化身）觀念可能對十一面觀音的形成有所啟發。
隨著大乘佛教在中亞和中國的弘揚，觀音信仰融入本土傳統：早在北周（6世紀）時，漢地已有十一面觀音相關經典譯出；唐代高僧玄奘於公元656年將《十一面觀音神咒經》從梵文譯成漢文，標誌著此法門正式傳入漢傳佛教。在唐朝皇室的倡導下，十一面觀音道場和造像在各地興建，並逐漸傳至朝鮮半島。新羅王室尊奉觀音，將其視為國泰民安的護佑者；石窟庵中的十一面觀音浮雕即是漢傳與本土藝術融合的產物。8世紀中葉，隨著遣唐使和留學僧的交流，日本吸收了十一面觀音的信仰與造像。
奈良時代的貴族與天皇篤信觀音，多座寺院（如當麻寺、法華寺、興福寺等）以十一面觀音為主尊，祈求國家安寧、人民除厄。平安時代，此信仰更普及民間，十一面觀音成為日本六觀音信仰體系之一，據說專司救度阿修羅道眾生。在西藏，十一面觀音形象與觀世音菩薩本土傳說相結合：傳說觀音化現為藏王松贊干布，成為西藏的守護神，因此西藏歷代王朝奉其為開國本尊。藏傳佛教中，十一面觀音經常與千手觀音結合，被稱為「十一面千手觀音」或「四十二臂觀音」，作為修習大悲法門（如尼眾閉關修持的八關齋戒法）之核心。本尊壇城中，十一面觀音被視為觀音淨土「補陀洛」的主尊，備受格魯派、高僧大德供奉。至於東南亞，觀音信仰隨海上絲路傳至爪哇、錫蘭等處，一些地域將十一面觀音與當地護法神祇習合。
在雲南南詔國，觀音（可能包括十一面形象）被奉為王室護法，有學者指出南詔供有「十一面神祇」以祈雨禳災。儘管各地表現形式不同，但十一面觀音作為大悲救世的象徵，其核心信仰——救苦救難的慈悲精神——在整個東亞和喜馬拉雅地區一脈相承。
As the Eleven-faced Avalokiteśvara image spread outward from India, different Buddhist regions adopted and reinterpreted it in unique ways. Scholars suggest that concepts from Hinduism, such as the eleven forms of the wrathful god Rudra (an aspect of Shiva), may have influenced the conception of Avalokiteśvara’s eleven heads. With the propagation of Mahayana Buddhism through Central Asia into China, the cult of Avalokiteśvara integrated with local traditions.
As early as the Northern Zhou period (6th century), Chinese translations of scriptures related to Eleven-faced Guanyin began to appear. In 656 CE, the Tang monk Xuanzang translated the Eleven-Faced Avalokiteśvara Dhāraṇī Sūtra from Sanskrit into Chinese, formally introducing this practice into East Asian Buddhism. Under Tang imperial patronage, temples and statues devoted to Eleven-faced Guanyin were established throughout China, and the devotion gradually spread to the Korean peninsula. The Silla royal family revered Avalokiteśvara as a guardian of the nation’s peace; the Seokguram grotto’s eleven-headed Avalokiteśvara relief exemplifies a fusion of the Chinese iconography with native artistry. By the mid-8th century, through Japanese embassies to Tang China and monks studying abroad, Japan absorbed the Eleven-headed Kannon worship and iconography. In the Nara period, the nobility and emperors were devout believers in Kannon; numerous temples (such as Taimadera, Hokke-ji, and Kōfuku-ji) enshrined Eleven-faced Kannon as their main image, praying for national stability and relief from calamities. During the Heian era, the faith spread among the populace, and Eleven-headed Kannon became part of Japan’s system of Six Kannon devotion, being the form believed to specifically save beings in the Asura realm.
In Tibet, the Eleven-faced form merged with indigenous Avalokiteśvara legends: Avalokiteśvara was said to have incarnated as King Songtsen Gampo, becoming the patron deity of Tibet, and thus subsequent Tibetan dynasties honored him as the nation’s founding bodhisattva. In Tibetan Buddhism, the Eleven-headed Avalokiteśvara is often combined with the Thousand-armed form (known as “Eleven-faced Thousand-Armed Avalokita” or the 42-armed Avalokita) and serves as a focal deity for practicing great compassion (e.g., the Nyungne fasting retreat performed especially by nuns). In esoteric mandalas, Eleven-faced Avalokiteśvara presides over Potala (Potalaka) paradise and is highly venerated by the Gelug school and other Tibetan lineages. As for Southeast Asia, Avalokiteśvara devotion traveled via maritime routes to places like Java and Sri Lanka, and in some locales the Eleven-faced form syncretized with local protector deities. In the 8th–9th century Nanzhao Kingdom of Yunnan, Avalokiteśvara (possibly in an eleven-faced aspect) was worshiped as a royal guardian; some research suggests Nanzhao honored an “Eleven-faced deity” for rainmaking and disaster aversion. Despite regional variations in expression, the Eleven-faced Avalokiteśvara, as a symbol of world-saving compassion, carried a consistent core message across East Asia and the Himalayas – the bodhisattva’s merciful commitment to relieve suffering, universally recognized and revered.
經典文獻記載 (Scriptural References)
十一面觀音的修持和功德在多部佛教經典中有所記載。在漢傳佛教中，四部重要的譯經與十一面觀音相關：
其一是北周天竺僧耶舍崛多譯《佛說十一面觀世音神咒經》，這是最早的譯本之一；
其二是唐代阿地瞿多（Atikūta）譯入《陀羅尼集經》第四卷中的〈十一面觀世音神咒經〉片段；
其三是唐代玄奘法師奉詔譯出的《十一面神咒心經》，於顯慶元年（656年）完成；
其四是唐代不空三藏所譯三卷本《十一面觀自在菩薩心密言念誦儀軌經》。這些典籍詳細描述了觀音菩薩為無量億如來宣說十一面觀音心咒及修持儀軌，並記載觀音示現十一面相救度眾生的緣起。
除了專門經典外，《千手千眼觀音廣大圓滿無礙大悲心陀羅尼經》亦與觀音菩薩息息相關。此經（俗稱《大悲咒經》）雖重在千手觀音，但其中的序分提到觀音菩薩過去成佛（正法明如來）卻以大悲願力倒駕慈航、化現菩薩救度眾生。密教傳統中，十一面觀音被納入《瑜伽念誦集》等儀軌，與其他觀音變相共同構成完整的觀音法門。
此外，在藏傳系統，十一面觀音心咒（如「嗡 瑪尼巴美 吽」六字大明咒的延伸變體）被視為強大的護身真言，流傳甚廣。在日韓等地，民眾亦熟誦十一面觀音咒，以祈求平安和消除災厄。經典的記載不僅提供了十一面觀音形象的理論依據，也為後世藝術與修持實踐奠定了基礎。
The practices and merits of Eleven-faced Avalokiteśvara are recorded in several Buddhist scriptures. In the Chinese Buddhist canon, four important translations are associated with the Eleven-faced Avalokiteśvara:
First is the Buddha Speaks the Dhāraṇī Sūtra of Eleven-faced Guanshiyin (Fo shuo Shiyi mian Guanshiyin shenzhou jing), translated by the Indian monk Yeshes-gupta (Yaśoghupta) in Northern Zhou – one of the earliest translations.
Second is an excerpt on Eleven-faced Avalokiteśvara included in the 4th scroll of the Dhāraṇī Collection Sūtra, translated in the Tang by Atikūta.
Third is the Heart Sūtra of the Eleven-faced Mantra (Shiyi mian shenzhou xinjing) translated by the Tang master Xuanzang in 656 CE.
Fourth is Amoghavajra’s Tang translation in three fascicles, titled The Manual of the Heart Secret Words and Rites of Eleven-faced Avalokiteśvara.
These texts detail how Avalokiteśvara, in the presence of billions of Buddhas, taught the heart dhāraṇī of the Eleven-faced form, outlined its ritual practices, and narrated the origin story of the bodhisattva manifesting eleven faces to save beings. In addition to these specific scriptures, the Mahākaruṇā Dhāraṇī Sūtra (commonly known as the Great Compassion Mantra Sūtra) is closely related. Although it centers on the Thousand-armed Avalokiteśvara, its prologue mentions that Avalokiteśvara had become a Buddha in a past eon (named “Proper Dharma Brightness Tathāgata”) but out of great compassion chose to appear as a bodhisattva to save living beings.
In esoteric Buddhist lineages, the Eleven-faced Avalokiteśvara is included in yoga sādhana compendiums and liturgies, forming a part of a comprehensive Avalokiteśvara practice system alongside other manifestations. Furthermore, in the Tibetan tradition, the mantra of Eleven-faced Avalokiteśvara (for example, extended forms of the six-syllable Om Mani Padme Hum) is regarded as a powerful protective incantation and is widely chanted. In Japan and Korea, laypeople also recite the Eleven-faced Avalokiteśvara dhāraṇī for blessings of safety and the removal of misfortunes. These scriptural records not only provide the doctrinal basis for the Eleven-headed Avalokiteśvara’s iconography but also laid the foundation for subsequent artistic representations and meditative practices.
藝術特色 (Artistic Features in Art Forms)
十一面觀音的形象廣泛出現在東亞藝術的各種形式中，包括雕塑、繪畫和刺繡等，每種形式都展現出獨特的材質運用和技法風格。雕塑方面，石雕與木雕是最常見的媒介：在中國，如上所述有唐代石灰岩造像，講究寫實比例和服飾細節；在日本奈良、平安時期，木造佛像則利用一木雕刻或乾漆造，表現菩薩身姿的流麗，表面施以彩繪或金箔增添神聖感。部分地區亦有金銅造像，例如奈良時代傳入的中國檀香木雕十一面觀音被覆以鍍金銅皮，閃耀莊嚴。
在西藏與尼泊爾，鑄造與鎏金技術發達，十一面觀音銅像常鑲嵌寶石、繪以彩綠松石等，體現高超金工技藝。
繪畫方面，敦煌莫高窟和安西榆林窟保存了許多唐宋時期的十一面觀音壁畫，畫工細膩，設色柔和，以連續的場景講述觀音應化故事。日本中世紀盛行掛軸畫，如16世紀的《十一面觀音來迎圖》描繪觀音腳踏雲彩降臨的景象，背後繪出放射的金色光芒，充分運用金泥與礦物顏料襯托神聖氛圍。這類掛軸畫多以絹本設色，有時會加入佛、菩薩眷屬群像以構圖完整。
刺繡與工藝方面，清代宮廷將十一面觀音與千手觀音題材運用於精美刺繡唐卡和法衣裝飾上。例如清乾隆年間製作的一幅帝室刺繡十一面觀音掛軸（北京故宮藏，1778年奉敕織造），中央主尊為十一面觀音，頭頂十小面環繞阿彌陀佛面，千手環身且每掌心繪眼，技法極為繁複。該刺繡採用絲線與金線，在深色緞地上繡出細膩的面容與飄帶，高度寫實之餘又富麗堂皇。除了宮廷藝術，民間亦有以觀音為題材的刺繡香火袋、織錦和版畫年畫等，將十一面觀音作為護佑圖像隨身攜帶或供奉。唐卡方面，藏傳佛教的畫師創作了許多十一面觀音唐卡，構圖上菩薩常居中，頭頂排列五層頭部，身周繪滿寂靜與忿怒本尊以及觀音淨土的細節，色彩濃烈對比，具有強烈的宗教視覺效果。總的來說，無論以何種材質或技法呈現，藝術作品中的十一面觀音皆著重表現菩薩的慈悲莊嚴：或透過雕塑的立體造型使人感受其安定寧靜，或藉由繪畫與刺繡的色彩光輝體現其神聖光明。這些藝術形式將宗教信仰轉化為具體可觀的形象，歷經千年仍廣泛流傳於亞洲各地。
The image of Eleven-faced Avalokiteśvara appears widely across various artistic media in East Asia, including sculpture, painting, and embroidery, each showcasing distinctive materials and techniques.
In sculpture, stone and wood have been the most common media. In China, as noted, Tang dynasty limestone statues emphasize realistic proportions and detailed drapery. In Nara and Heian Japan, wooden statues carved from single blocks or built up with dry lacquer capture the flowing grace of the bodhisattva’s form, their surfaces often finished with polychromy or gold leaf to enhance the sacred appearance. Some regions also produced gilt-bronze images; for example, an Eleven-headed Kannon of Nara period, carved in sandalwood and then covered in gilt bronze, shines with regal splendor. In Tibet and Nepal, advanced casting and gilding techniques led to exquisite metal images; Eleven-faced Avalokiteśvara bronzes were often inlaid with semi-precious stones and painted with turquoise and other pigments, reflecting superb metallurgical craftsmanship.
In painting, numerous murals from the Tang and Song eras at the Mogao and Yulin caves in Dunhuang depict Eleven-headed Guanyin. These murals are rendered with fine linework and gentle colors, often arranged in narrative sequences illustrating Avalokiteśvara’s miraculous interventions. In medieval Japan, hanging scroll paintings became popular. For instance, the 16th-century Descent of the Eleven-Headed Kannon shows Kannon descending on clouds, rays of golden light emanating behind him, making full use of gold paint and mineral pigments to convey a luminous sacred aura. Such scrolls were usually painted on silk with colors and sometimes include attendant Buddhas and bodhisattvas to complete the composition.
In embroidery and textile arts, the Qing court in China applied the imagery of Eleven-faced (and Thousand-armed) Guanyin to sumptuous embroidered thangkas and ritual garments. For example, an imperial embroidery of Eleven-headed Guanyin commissioned in the Qianlong era (dated 1778, now in the Palace Museum, Beijing) features the central deity with ten small heads encircling an Amitābha head at the top, and a thousand arms fanning around the figure, each palm bearing an eye – an extremely elaborate design. This embroidery uses silk floss and metallic gold thread on a dark satin ground to stitch incredibly fine facial features and fluttering scarves, achieving a result both highly realistic and magnificently ornate. Beyond court art, folk artisans also embraced the theme of Guanyin in embroidered incense pouches, brocades, and woodblock prints for popular devotion, allowing people to carry or enshrine protective images of the Eleven-faced Guanyin. In Tibetan thangka painting, many depictions of Eleven-headed Avalokiteśvara were created by skilled Lamas. These thangkas typically position the bodhisattva in the center with five tiers of heads, surrounded by numerous peaceful and wrathful deities and intricate details of Avalokiteśvara’s pure land. They use bold, contrasting colors to produce a striking religious visual effect. Across all these media and techniques, artists have consistently aimed to express the compassionate majesty of Avalokiteśvara: whether through the tangible calm of sculpted forms or the radiant splendor of pigments and threads in paintings and embroideries. These artistic renditions transform religious devotion into concrete images, which have endured for millennia and remain widespread throughout Asia.
文化影響 (Cultural Impact)
十一面觀音作為觀音菩薩的特殊化現，在東亞佛教和民俗信仰中產生了深遠影響。宗教層面上，它豐富了觀音信仰的內涵，使信眾透過不同面相體會觀音的慈悲與威嚴。漢傳佛教的法會儀式中，有專門的十一面觀音道場誦經祈福，僧人們持誦《十一面觀音神咒》以祈願消除災難、增長智慧。
日本真言宗將十一面觀音列為六觀音之一，強調其在六道輪迴救度中不可或缺的角色，許多寺院每年舉行十一面觀音大法會，吸引信徒參拜。作為寺廟本尊，十一面觀音塑像在各地成為信仰焦點：例如奈良長谷寺供奉的巨型十一面觀音木像，高達10米，被視為靈驗之源，每年吸引大量香客朝拜；中國民間傳說中，觀音菩薩有三十三化身，十一面觀音即被視為觀音「應化三十三身」之一，在民間戲曲、寶卷中留下印記。
藏傳佛教則將觀世音菩薩（藏語稱Chenrezig）尊為達賴喇嘛的化身，十一面觀音與六字大明咒的修持更是西藏日常宗教生活的重要部分；許多藏人每日持誦觀音心咒和禮拜十一面觀音唐卡，以積累功德、迴向眾生。
民俗層面上，十一面觀音的形象融入了藝術和文學作品之中，象徵慈悲救世的典範。在中國和日本的傳統雕版畫中，常見十一面觀音圖像懸掛於堂前以保家護宅。在現代，亞洲各國博物館和文化展覽透過十一面觀音藝術品，促進了國際學者對東亞佛教藝術與跨文化交流的研究。可以說，十一面觀音不僅是宗教偶像，更是連結亞洲各地文化與信仰的紐帶：它見證了佛教傳播的歷史，也體現了慈悲普渡的精神，至今仍在不同文化背景下激發著人們對慈悲與智慧的崇仰。
As a unique manifestation of Avalokiteśvara, the Eleven-faced Guanyin has had a profound impact on East Asian Buddhism and folk belief.
In religion, it has enriched the content of Avalokiteśvara devotion, allowing devotees to experience both the compassionate and the formidable aspects of the bodhisattva through his multiple faces. In Chinese Buddhist liturgy, dedicated Eleven-faced Guanyin ceremonies are held where monks chant the Eleven-faced Avalokiteśvara dhāraṇī to pray for the averting of calamities and the increase of wisdom. In Japan’s Shingon (Esoteric) school, the Eleven-headed Kannon is listed as one of the Roku Kannon (Six Kannon forms), underscoring its indispensable role in saving beings from the six realms of rebirth. Many Japanese temples hold annual grand rituals (＊Jūichimen Kannon-e＊) for the Eleven-faced Kannon, drawing crowds of worshippers. As temple icons, statues of Eleven-headed Kannon often become focal points of faith in their locales. For example, Hase-dera in Nara enshrines a colossal wooden Eleven-headed Kannon statue about 10 meters tall, regarded as a source of miraculous intervention and attracting throngs of pilgrims each year. In Chinese popular lore, Guanyin is said to have 33 manifestations, and Eleven-faced Guanyin is counted among these thirty-three responsive forms, leaving its mark in folk operas and precious scroll narratives. In Tibetan Buddhism, Avalokiteśvara (known as Chenrezig in Tibetan) is revered as the incarnational deity of the Dalai Lama, and the practice of the Eleven-faced Avalokiteśvara together with the Six-syllabled Great Mantra is a vital part of Tibet’s daily religious life. Many Tibetans recite Avalokiteśvara’s mantra and pay homage to Eleven-faced Chenrezig thangkas every day to accumulate merit and dedicate it to all beings.
In the cultural sphere, the image of Eleven-faced Avalokiteśvara has been woven into art and literature as a symbol of compassion and salvation. Traditional woodblock prints in China and Japan often feature Eleven-faced Guanyin images hung in homes to protect the household. In modern times, museums and cultural exhibitions across Asia showcase Eleven-faced Avalokiteśvara artworks, facilitating international scholarly research into East Asian Buddhist art and cross-cultural interchange. In summary, the Eleven-faced Avalokiteśvara is not only a religious icon but also a link connecting diverse Asian cultures and faiths. It bears witness to the historical spread of Buddhism and embodies the spirit of universal compassion. To this day, under various cultural contexts, it continues to inspire veneration for its message of compassion and wisdom.
Wooden Standing Bodhisattva
Cleveland Musuem of Art
Sold by Eskenazi Ltd London
This Guanyin is carved from a single block of willow (genus Salix sp.).
The bodhisattva is an enlightened being dedicated to the spiritual awakening of all beings. The compassionate bodhisattva Guanyin, in a variety of manifestations, is probably the most popular deity of worship in Chinese Buddhism. In the Esoteric Buddhist form shown here, this standing Guanyin has a total of eleven heads, with smaller ones above the principal head. The uppermost head represents the Buddha Amitabha, to whom he is closely related. The eleven heads symbolize the Buddha’s steps on the path to enlightenment.
October 19, 1944
(Sotheby's, New York, NY, sale October 19, 1944, lot 229, sold to C. T. Loo)
1944–1952
(C. T. Loo 盧芹齋 [1880–1957], Paris and New York)
?–1980
Anne Valliant Burnett Tandy [1900–1980], Fort Worth, Texas, consigned to Sotheby's New York
November 6, 1981
(Sotheby's, New York, NY, sale November 6, 1981, lot 50)
1981
(J. E. Eskenazi, Ltd., London, UK, sold to the Cleveland Museum of Art)
1981–
The Cleveland Museum of Art, Cleveland, OH
Citations
Sotheby Parke Bernet Inc., New York. Chinese Objects of Art. 19 October 1944. Lot 229. Mentioned: Lot 229
Sotheby's New York. Fine Chinese Ceramics, Works of Art and Paintings. 6 November 1981. Lot 50. Reproduced: lot 50
Lee, Sherman E. “The Year in Review for 1981.” The Bulletin of the Cleveland Museum of Art 69, no. 2 (February 1982): 39–82. Reproduced: p. 71; Mentioned: p. 83, no. 136
“Annual Report for 1981.” The Bulletin of the Cleveland Museum of Art 69, no. 6 (June 1982): 159–206. Reproduced: p. 174
Norton, Thomas E. Foreward by Douglas Dillon. 100 Years of Collecting in America: The Story of Sotheby Parke Bernet. New York: H.N. Abrams, 1984. Mentioned: p. 218
Guo li gu gong bo wu yuan 國立故宮博物院. Hai wai yi zhen. fo xiang [海外遺珎. 佛像 = Chinese art in overseas collections. Buddhist sculpture]. Taibei Shi: Guo li gu gong bo wu yuan, 1990. Reproduced: p. 152
Cunningham, Michael R., Stanislaw J. Czuma, Anne E. Wardwell, and J. Keith Wilson. Masterworks of Asian Art. Cleveland, OH: The Cleveland Museum of Art, 1998. Reproduced: pp. 56-57
Sun, Di, editor. Zhongguo liu shi hai wai Fo jiao zao xiang zong he tu mu [中国流失海外佛教造像总合图目 = Comprehensive Illustrated Catalogue of Chinese Buddhist Statues in Overseas Collections]. Beijing: Wai wen chu ban she, 2005. Reproduced: vol. 7, p. 1364
"New in the Galleries.” Cleveland Art: Cleveland Museum of Art Members Magazine vol. 59, no. 1 (January/February 2019): Back cover. Reproduced and Mentioned: Back cover.
Sotheby's (Firm), Hong Kong. Important Chinese art. October 8, 2019. Reproduced: p. 169
Exhibition History
The Year in Review for 1981. The Cleveland Museum of Art, Cleveland, OH (organizer) (February 17-March 21, 1982).
Frequently Asked Questions About the Eleven-Faced Guanyin
1. What is the Eleven-Faced Guanyin?
The Eleven-Faced Guanyin (also known as Eleven-headed Avalokiteśvara) is a specific form of the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara, known for compassion. This manifestation is characterized by having eleven heads, symbolizing the bodhisattva's ability to perceive the suffering of beings in all directions and offer universal help.
2. What do the eleven faces of the Eleven-Faced Guanyin represent?
The eleven faces have multiple symbolic interpretations. Generally, they signify the bodhisattva's capacity to see and hear the cries of all beings in the ten directions, thus demonstrating omnipresent compassion. Specific interpretations vary, such as representing the stages on the path to enlightenment, the ten perfections (pāramitās), or the means to overcome eleven fundamental types of ignorance. Some traditions also categorize the faces into benign, wrathful, and fantastical expressions, showing the bodhisattva's ability to adapt to different beings' needs.
3. What is the origin and historical development of the Eleven-Faced Guanyin?
The Eleven-Faced Guanyin originated in India, with the earliest known depiction being a relief carving from the late 5th or early 6th century. From India, the image spread to East Asia, becoming particularly popular in China during the Tang Dynasty. It was then transmitted to Korea and Japan, where it was integrated into local Buddhist practices and artistic traditions. Tibetan Buddhism also adopted the form, often combining it with the Thousand-Armed Avalokiteśvara.
4. What are some of the significant scriptures associated with the Eleven-Faced Guanyin?
Several Buddhist scriptures reference the Eleven-Faced Guanyin, including the Buddha Speaks the Dhāraṇī Sūtra of Eleven-faced Guanshiyin, the Heart Sūtra of the Eleven-faced Mantra, and The Manual of the Heart Secret Words and Rites of Eleven-faced Avalokiteśvara. These texts detail the mantra, rituals, and origin stories associated with the Eleven-Faced Guanyin, providing a scriptural basis for its practice and iconography. Also related is the Mahākaruṇā Dhāraṇī Sūtra.
5. How does the iconography of the Eleven-Faced Guanyin vary across different regions?
The iconography of the Eleven-Faced Guanyin varies across regions, reflecting a fusion of cross-cultural artistic exchange and local aesthetics. For example, Tang Dynasty Chinese sculptures often exhibit full, sensuous forms influenced by classical Indian art, while Japanese sculptures in the Nara and Heian periods are characterized by a simple yet solemn appearance. Tibetan and Nepalese depictions tend to be intricate bronze or gilt statues, and West Asian versions of the icon are stone carvings.
6. What religious practices are associated with the Eleven-Faced Guanyin?
Practices associated with the Eleven-Faced Guanyin include reciting mantras, performing rituals, and visualizing the deity. These practices are believed to bring blessings, avert calamities, increase wisdom, and provide salvation from suffering. In Tibetan Buddhism, it is central to the practice of great compassion and the path towards enlightenment.
7. What is the cultural impact of the Eleven-Faced Guanyin in East Asia?
The Eleven-Faced Guanyin has had a profound cultural impact in East Asia. It has enriched the content of Avalokiteśvara devotion, served as a protector of the nation, and become a symbol of compassion. The image has been incorporated into art, literature, and folk traditions, and continues to inspire veneration and study.
8. Where can I find examples of Eleven-Faced Guanyin art?
Examples of Eleven-Faced Guanyin art can be found in museums, temples, and private collections across Asia and the world. Significant examples include sculptures, murals, paintings, and embroidered thangkas. The Cleveland Museum of Art has a wooden standing Eleven-Faced Guanyin Bodhisattva in its collection. Notable murals can be found in the Dunhuang caves of China, and various temples in Japan house significant sculptures of the deity.
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